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The Local Government Review

Item Type : Periodical

Issue Date : I (10&11) October-November 1949

Language : English

Rights : In Copyright - Educational Use Permitted


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Articles:

Desirable government

Language: English

Subject: Political accountability; Transparency in government; Leadership; Public officers; Jefferson, Thomas

Abstract: The article said that a good government must have good public servants who will serve their fellow citizens with an honest and transparent government and who will focus on the benefit of the population by being peaceful and not tied to other treaties.

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A bill of rights for children

Language: English

Subject: Children's rights; Child welfare; Legal status of children

Abstract: The article stated that regardless of race and color, each child has the right to health, education, family life, play, and recreation, and protection from harm and abuse.

Rights: In Copyright - Educational Use Permitted

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Rizal Day, a public observance of [Provincial circulars].

Language: English

Subject: Rizal, Jose, 1861-1896 -- Anniversaries, etc.; Cockfighting; Horse race betting; Jai Alai; Gambling

Abstract: The article stated that regardless of race and color, each child has the right to health, education, family life, play, and recreation, and protection from harm and abuse.

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Provincial circular (unnumbered) of the Secretary of the Interior [Provincial circulars]

Language: English

Subject: Government programs; Decision making in government policy; Philippines. Department of Interior and Local Government

Abstract: The article stated that the government is in charge of the planning concept before proceeding with all the government projects. Planning and intelligent selection of the purposes of a program would mean the economy in government and therefore the efficiency in administration.

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Rural Council [Provincial circulars]

Language: English

Subject: Rural development projects; Rural planning; Government programs; Rural council; Philippines. Department of Interior and Local Government; Public officials; Baluyot, Sotero

Abstract: Rural Council is one of the programs of the Local Government that functions are to organize civic lectures concerning the duties and rights of citizenship and to offer to the Government the cooperation necessary for the success of the public. The purpose of this program is to bring the government to the people and the people to the government.

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Fees on foodstuffs [Provincial circulars]

Language: English

Subject: Primary commodities; Tax collection; Municipal government; Philippines. Department of Interior and Local Government

Abstract: The Local Government received complaints that municipal treasurers are collecting taxes or fees on foodstuffs and other goods and merchandise carried into or out of the city or municipalities. This ordinance will deter the free flow of commerce in the country and cause a considerable increase in the prices of commodities of the consuming public. The Local government instructed the city and Municipal treasurers to refrain from collecting municipal taxes and fees for these commodities.

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Effect of resignation before retirement [Provincial circulars]

Language: English

Subject: Resignation from public office; Retirement; Public officers; Corruption; Municipal government personnel – La Union; Dino, Ceferino

Abstract: Mr. Dino is a Provincial Treasurer and Assessor of Albay and will retire under Act no. 2589, as amended, resigned from his position on June 15, 1938. The records of the Bureau of Civil Service show that his resignation was due to various irregularities committed by him in the office, the so-called courtesy resignation was accepted by the President on October 19, 1946. The Office previously ruled that an officer or employee who resigns without being retired under Act no. 2589, as amended, thus waives his right to retire in it based on his services before his resignation.

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Biographical sketch

Language: English

Subject: Antonio, Sixto Jose, 1891-1961 – Biography; Politicians -- Biography; Mayors – Pasig City

Abstract: Dr. Sixto Antonio is a physician, was born in Bambang Pasig, Rizal, on April 6, 1891. He was the youngest son of the spouses Leocadio Antonio and Rafaela Jose. His political career began in 1922 when he was elected municipal councilor of his hometown; was thereafter chosen Municipal President by the electorate and twice re-elected to said office in two consecutive elections, and retired temporarily from politics. In 1946, he was appointed Governor of Rizal by President Manuel A. Roxas. His leadership was endorsed by his people in the last election for local offices, by giving him an overwhelming majority over his opponent Nacionalista candidate.

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Provincial affairs subject to approval or authorization by National authorities

Language: English

Subject: Provincial governments; Legislative bodies; Decision making in government policy

Abstract: The provincial government is responsible for the areas enumerated in the Constitution Act, 1867, such as education, health care, some natural resources and highway regulations. The provincial government has the power to enact or amend laws and programs related to the natural resources and environment, hospitals, property and civil rights in the province, education, administration of justice, and social services.

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It's your son [letter from a British aviator to a German mother]

Language: English

Subject: Soldiers' letters; World War II personal narratives; Mothers; World War II casualties

Abstract: The article is a letter written by a British pilot to the mother of the victim he killed during the war. He told her that he did not want to kill her child and it was part of his duty to protect his countrymen. The mother replied to his letter and told him that there is nothing to forgive and that she said, “women, war is a reality, for all men are our sons. Yet, perhaps, women more than men are to blame for this world war. We did not know that the children of the world were our child

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Refund of tuition fee and rental of textbooks of students called to military training [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Tuition; Rebates; Higher education -- Finance; College textbooks; Lease and rental services; Military privileges and immunities

Abstract: The office of the Director of Education believed that the student may be allowed to use the rented books again during the same school year only, rented textbooks which he voluntarily returned when called to military training, if, upon termination thereof, he returns to his classes take the special examination provided in Commonwealth Act No. 131.

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When de jure officer may not be paid [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Municipal officials and employees -- Salaries, etc.; Mayors – Lagonoy, Camarines Sur; Doctor, Juan

Abstract: The elected vice-mayor of Lagonoy, Camarines Sur assumed office immediately after liberation under the Commonwealth Government and he also acted as municipal mayor during the period from September 19 to October 15, 1945. Mr. Quintin Aramea claims to have also rendered services as acting mayor during the same period cannot be paid for his service.

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Boys town, aid for out of sweepstake allotment [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Institutional care of children – Iloilo City; Grants in aid (Public finance); Financing of child welfare; Sweepstakes

Abstract: The Iloilo City allotted certain amount of funds for the Boys town out of the share of the sweepstakes funds allotted to the City as proposed in the Resolution no. 515 dated April 22, 1947, under Section 4 of Commonwealth Act 301.

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Municipal Councilors not entitled to traveling expenses in going to and returning from sessions of municipal council [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Municipal officials and employees; Travel costs; Meetings; Public meetings of legislative bodies

Abstract: Given the provision of the law, the Office does not allow reimbursement from government funds for traveling expenses of municipal councilors in attending sessions of the council, it is suggested that the Municipal Council concerned should avail of the provisions of the first paragraph of section 2187, granting municipal councilors under certain condition a per diem for every regular session that they attended.

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Cleaning of backyards and privately-owned lots [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Environmental responsibility; Property rights -- Government policy; Cleaning; Housekeeping

Abstract: The office approved the proposed supplemental budget for the salary of laborers engaged in the cleaning of backyards and privately-owned lots in Baguio City, subject to the provisions of section 2553 (r) of the Revised Administrative Code, authorizing the city council "to require any land or building which is in unsanitary condition to be cleaned at the expense of the owner or tenant, and, upon failure to comply with such an order, have the work done, and assess the expense upon the land or building.

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Wages during official holidays [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Holiday pay; Wages; Labor laws; Compensation management

Abstract: The Office is not aware of any law which authorizes payment of wages during official holidays to employees who are paid by the day, except in the cases where they are required and have rendered service during such holidays.

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Rice planting festival appropriation in connection with [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Rice planting rites; Festivals – Caloocan (Rizal)

Abstract: The office approved Resolution no. 143 to settle the expenses acquired in connection with the celebration of "Rice Planting Festival" in Caloocan, Rizal, provided that the cost of drinks, cigars, and cigarettes and other items not necessary in the celebration thereof shall not be charged against the said appropriation.

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Municipal councilors, traveling expenses of outside their municipalities [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Municipal officials and employees; Travel costs; Reimbursement

Abstract: When traveling on official business, municipal councils are entitled to reimbursement of their actual and necessary expenses of travel with the approval of the provincial governor, subject to the provisions of Executive Order No. 369, 1941 series, and 78, 1945 series, and usual requirements for verification.

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Expenses incurred by delegation to welcome the speaker and his party [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Delegation (Civil law) – Finance -- Malinoa -- Albay; Conferences and conventions

Abstract: The amount appropriated under Resolution No. 8, series of 1947 for the purpose of paying the expenses acquired by the delegation in welcoming Speaker Perez and Party to the Malinoa, Albay as well as to cover future expenses that may be incurred by similar delegation in welcoming national officials that may visit the province, is not allowable in audit, there being no provision of law authorizing payment of such expenses from government funds.

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Requisition for equipment or supplies chargeable to account E-3, approval by municipal treasurer necessary [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Office equipment and supplies; Government purchasing; Municipal officials and employees -- Tarlac

Abstract: The Provincial Auditor of Tarlac is requiring all requests covering purchases of supplies and materials chargeable against the account "E·3," Maintenance and Operation of primary Classes in the municipalities, should be approved by the municipal treasurers concerned.

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Appropriation for picture of municipal officials and employees in Carnival directory [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Public spending; Municipal officials and employees – Masantol (Pampanga)

Abstract: The Municipal Council of Masantol, Pampanga, appropriated certain amount to contribute to the expenses of the images of all the municipal officials and employees to be used in the preparation in the Pampanga Directory. The law disapproves participation of municipalities in carnivals.

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Provincial auditor, quarters allowance of under act 2907 [Ruling of the General Auditing Office]

Language: English

Subject: Wage increases; Municipal officials and employees -- Salaries, etc.; Salaries of state government personnel

Abstract: The office grants quarter allowance to the Provincial Auditor with the rate of P30.00 per month effective July 1, 1947 in accordance with the provisions of Section 2, Act 2907.

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Rizal appeals to the old

Language: English

Subject: Rizal, Jose P., 1861-1896; Letters; Garcia, Vicente

Abstract: The article is an excerpt from Rizal’s letter to Father Vicente Garcia. He mentioned in his letter that the individual only improves alone and not with his other people and the one benefits from his success and gains from the improvements and innovation that he brought to the society. He wants the individual to share what he discovered and contribute it to the future generations.

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Rizal on Visayan and Tagalog

Language: English

Subject: Rizal, Jose P., 1861-1896 – Correspondence; Visayan language; Tagalog language; Blumentritt, Ferdinand

Abstract: The article is Jose Rizal’s letter to his friend Prof. Ferdinand Blumentritt from Dapitan. He stated in his letter that he is learning to speak in a Visayan language, and he is asking for advice as to how to learn it faster. He finds the Spanish language beautiful, natural and useful as Tagalog, but when spoken properly, Tagalog is as good as any other language.

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Executive determinations streets, use of how to close same from public servitude

Language: English

Subject: Streets – Bulan (Sorsogon); Marketplaces – Bulan (Sorsogon); Public lands -- Government policy – Bulan (Sorsogon); Servitudes

Abstract: Streets cannot be used for market purposes, the municipality of Bulan, Sorsogon has no power to authorize certain part of a street to be used as a marketplace, the neighbors complained of setting up the streets as a marketplace because their walkway will be blocked. Based on the existing requirement, the market site should be out of view from the municipal administration building.

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Holding of sessions outside of capital; respective functions of provincial and municipal governments (executive determination)

Language: English

Subject: Public meetings of legislative bodies; Municipal governments; Provincial governments; Local governments; Decision making in public administration

Abstract: The holding of sessions of local government officials outside the towns is not advisable, municipal governments are supposed to attend to the immediate needs of their people, while the provincial governments are the only ones to supervise the broad functions and policies of the municipal governments.

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Municipal public works, execution of; when subject to bids

Language: English

Subject: Public works – Pasay City; Municipal services – Pasay City; Requests for proposals (Public contracts); Infrastructure policy

Abstract: The municipal public works involving an estimated expenditure of three thousand pesos or more shall be publicized for bids and contracts consequently be awarded to the lowest responsible bidder. The District Engineer is not authorized to approve vouchers covering payments.

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Scale of salaries for municipalities in special provinces; basis of salaries of municipal officials in capitals

Language: English

Subject: Municipal officials and employees -- Salaries, etc. – Maluko (Bukidnon)

Abstract: The salary scales for municipal officials in special provinces is based on the Administrative Code, the scale established will be the basis of fixing salaries in municipal capitals of the specially organized provinces.

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Municipal income from fishing and fisheries; policy on deep-sea fishing

Language: English

Subject: Fisheries – Madridejos (Cebu); Municipal government -- Madridejos (Cebu); Municipal revenue

Abstract: The Municipal Council of Madridejos, Cebu, seeks to divert to the Municipal Government the income or revenues that the Insular Government derives from fishing. In the Fisheries Law (Sec. 67-70), Municipal governments are authorized to issue licenses to qualified fishing operators using vessels of three tons or less, the National Government is particularly taking care of the protection and conservation of the fishery wealth of the nation and even for these alone, the National Government should be allowed to share in the revenue derived from fishing and fisheries.

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Provincial board not empowered to regulate exportation of lumber nor to impose fee on businesses

Language: English

Subject: Lumber industry – Negros Occidental; Export duties; Exports -- Government policy

Abstract: The Provincial Board of Negros Occidental collects a permit fee of P5 for every 1000 board feet of lumber from that province and exported to other provinces and for the apportionment of the proceeds thereof between the province and the municipality where the lumber is loaded for export. In the Revised Administrative Code, municipalities are prohibited to impose taxes in any form whatever upon goods and merchandise carried into the municipality.

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Designation of provincial board member as acting provincial governor - what he may claim

Language: English

Subject: Governors – Davao City; Municipal officials & employees -- Salaries, etc.

Abstract: In the Provincial Circular (Unnumbered) dated August 20, 1947, Provincial board member who acted as a Provincial Governor may collect the usual per diems as Board member for the attendance at the sessions of the Provincial Board or he may reimburse his actual expenses for subsistence and lodging during his stay in the provincial capital as acting Provincial Governor, with the rate not exceeding P8.00 a day during the period he acted as such Acting Governor of Davao.

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Percentage of salaries allowable for fifth class municipalities

Language: English

Subject: Municipal officials & employees -- Salaries, etc. -- Tubay (Agusan del Norte)

Abstract: In the Revised Administrative Code, the municipalities are divided into five classes, since the classification for the municipality of Tubay has not been made, the administrative practice of computing the maximum amount allowable to be used by 5th class municipalities for salaries and wages based on that fixed for 4th class municipalities.

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Executive determinations streets, use of how to close same from public servitude

Language: English

Subject: Streets – Bulan (Sorsogon); Public spaces – Bulan (Sorsogon); Marketplaces – Bulan (Sorsogon); Public lands – Bulan (Sorsogon); Servitudes; City Councils – Bulan (Sorsogon)

Abstract:  The municipal council of Bulan, Sorsogon will pass and approve to close traffic to the streets along National Road and the Market in the belief that people are crowding the streets and that there is a dangerous precedent in the future. Public streets are held by the municipality in trust for the public and every individual, without distinction, is entitled to the lawful use thereof, subject to such restriction, only as may be necessary for the exercise by the municipality of its police powers.

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Assessment of real property - C.A 470 applicable to cities; assessor may determine ownership of real property

Language: English

Subject: Real property – San Pablo (Laguna); Valuation of real property; Tax assessment

Abstract: The article stated that the City Assessor of San Pablo is authorized to exercise his own judgment in determining the ownership of the real property for taxation and examine the records of the Register of Deeds of Laguna if necessary.

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Jurisdiction between municipalities - amicable settlement thereof advised

Language: English

Subject: Border barriers – Paracale (Camarines Norte); Border barriers – Mambulao (Camarines Norte); Border stations – Camarines Norte; Border stations

Abstract: Under Section 2167 of the Administrative Code, the boundary line fixed in the agreement is traced on the ground and monumented by the District Engineer with concrete standard monuments at expenditures to be allowed equal between Paracale and Mamburao. Such agreement would have to be represented in a joint resolution of the relevant municipal councils and approved by the resolution of the provincial council.

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Expropriation proceedings, data required in

Language: English

Subject: Eminent domain – Pili (Camarines Sur); Property rights – Pili (Camarines Sur); Hibago Barrio School

Abstract: The Municipal council is requesting the authority to exercise the right of important domain, which allows the acquisition of private properties for public purposes only upon failure of negotiations for the donation or sale thereof at a price to be fixed by the Appraisal Committee.

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Sawmills or manufacturers of lumbers, municipal license taxes upon

Language: English

Subject: Sawmills; Lumber industry; Taxation; Local taxation

Abstract: The municipal councils have the power to charge municipal license taxes upon sawmills or manufacturers of lumbers which are considered merchants for purposes of municipal taxation. The rate of the license tax imposed in the said ordinance has been approved under the provisions of section 4 of Commonwealth Act No. 472.

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Provincial or Municipal nurseries, policy on establishment thereof

Language: English

Subject: Nurseries (Children's rooms); Government aid to child care; Child welfare; Institutional care of children; Social services

Abstract: The article stated that the Local Government is not in favor of establishing provincial or municipal nurseries on borrowed money. Such nurseries must be financed locally as the national government is not in a position to provide funds for them.

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Inspections by officials : inspections by provincial Governors [Sec. 110 by C.P.C]

Language: English

Subject: Governors; Municipal officials and employees; Constituents (Persons)

Abstract: Provincial Governors should make inspections at least every (6) six months following section 2083 of the Administrative Code. He should always take full responsibility for his constituents by keeping the peace and order in the community.

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Fisheries act (Act No. 4003 as amended by C. A. No. 471) [series].

Language: English

Subject: Fisheries act; Fisheries; Fishery management and the environment

Abstract: This Act provides for the protection and conservation of fishery resources such as the declaration of open and closed seasons, protection of fry or fish eggs, prohibition of the use of poisonous substances and explosives in fishing, and prevention of water pollution. The Act shall apply to fishing and fisheries in Philippine waters, including inland and marine waters.

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The Five freedoms

Language: English

Subject: Liberty; Roosevelt, Franklin D., 1882-1945

Abstract: Franklin D. Roosevelt listed five points that must be realized before permanent world peace would be assured.

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Philippine apparition

Language: English

Subject: Mary, Blessed Virgin, Saint; Mary, Mediatrix of All Grace (Lipa, Batangas); Religious apparitions; Catholic church

Abstract: The term Mediatrix is associated with an alleged 1948 apparition of the Virgin Mary to Teresita Castillo, with title Mary, Mediatrix of All Grace in the Carmelite monastery of Lipa, Batangas. The apparition is well known in the Philippines and among the Filipino movement, most notably the preserved rose petals which fell from the sky and are claimed to be miraculous.

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Local medicinal plants sold in the City of Manila

Creator: Sulit, Mamerto D.

Language: English

Subject: Medicinal plants – Quiapo (Manila); Medicinal plants – Binondo (Manila); Phytotherapy

Abstract: If anyone should desire to buy remedies for all conceivable ailments, he should not go very far. These remedies are very near the Quiapo churchyard and the Binondo ruins. Each store carries a large assortment of pieces of wood, twigs, roots, and a variety of leaves from fresh to dry. And if he should believe the storekeepers, these herbs and plants are potent medicines for all kinds of sickness. For this reason, people, having so much faith in the healing powers of these herbs, go to these stores. What is more interesting is the fact that the storekeepers are veritable herbalists.

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Force and effect of decisions in administrative cases rendered during the Japanese occupation [Opinions of the Secretary of Justice]

Language: English

Subject: Sexual harassment in education; Complaints (Administrative procedure) – Japanese occupation – Cases; Judicial process; Teachers -- Complaints against; Poliquit, Aniano; Nebrida, Venancio

Abstract: The judgement is requested as to whether or not decisions, in administrative cases, rendered during the Japanese occupation are to be considered valid, because of the proclamation of General Douglas MacArthur of October 23, 1944. It seems as if Mr. Aniano Poliquit, a school teacher, and Mr. Venancio Nebrida were charged with improper conduct (kissing school girls) and immorality, respectively. Their cases were investigated, by the Commonwealth Government, in March 1940, and decisions were rendered thereon, by the Executive Commission, in August 1942.

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Distribution of rainfall in the Philippines

Creator: Del Rosario, Casimiro

Language: English

Subject: Rainfall; Rainfall periodicity; Rainfall probabilities; Meteorological services

Abstract: The rains in the Philippines are mainly due to the air currents and due to the influence of typhoons. Based on the observations, taking into consideration the two periods of rain, they have tried to divide the monthly distribution of rainfall into four types.

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Devotion to duty

Language: English

Subject: Political autonomy; Liberty; Luna, Antonio, 1866-1899; Castillo, Conchita

Abstract: The article is about the letter of Antonio Luna to Conchita Castillo on June 2, 1899. He stated how much he wanted to return to Manila and fight for the liberty of the Filipino people. He also said in his letter that the success of our independence can be attained by having the courage to fight for it and being consistent in our actions.

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Glorious past of Malayans

Creator: Soliven, Benito

Language: English

Subject: Civilization; Theory (Philosophy)

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The Maura law [Royal Decree of May 19, 1893] [Series]

Language: English

Subject: Maura Law; Justice administration; Land title registration and transfer; Land tenure

Abstract: On May 19, 1893, the Maura Law was promulgated. Named after its author Antonio Maura y Montañer, who was then the Minister of Colonies of Spain. Its purpose was to consult upon the towns and provinces of Luzon and the Visayan Islands a greater measure of autonomy, except for Manila whose government (at that time) was not altered. The Law was intended to implant a more enlightened form of local government, through the establishment of tribunals municipals, and provincial council and the concession of powers deemed properly to belong to particular localities, subject to the supervision of the parish priest, provincial juntas, and the Central Government.

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Supreme Court decision occupancy of Public market stalls a privilege

Language: English

Subject: Vending stands; Produce markets; Markets; Municipal services; Appellate courts; Philippines. Supreme Court

Abstract: There is no question that the establishment, maintenance and operation of public markets are governmental in nature, being among the public functions of the state and therefore, the opportunity of occupying stalls in public markets is a privilege that can be granted or withdrawn without impairing any one of the guarantees embodied in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution.

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Our local officials [photo essay]

Language: English

Subject: Local officials and employees; Mayors – Batangas; Mayors – Tagbilaran (Bohol); Mayors – Paluan (Mindoro); Perez, Roman L., 1894-; Gaitan, Bonifacio C., 1910- ; Pelderol, Perdro, 1913-; Abeleda, Damaso V., 1893-

Abstract: Photographs of our Local Officials and their short biographies.

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Teachings of the heroes

Language: English

Subject: Filipino people; National characteristics

Abstract: In the article, the author describes the political, social, and religious qualities that the Filipino people have to have. We should love our native land and never advocate anything other than what will benefit her. Think of the motherland before anything else. Strive for the happiness of your country before your own, and seek that she be governed with justice, reason, and industry.

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Activities of the Local Governments and their officials

Language: English

Subject: Local government; Meeting minutes; Local officials and employees

Abstract: The Local government officials held a convention at the Mansion House, Baguio City, on May 5-6, 1949 and it was attended by the Governors and City Mayors. The Minutes of the Convention discussed issues and resolutions.

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Leasing of market stalls

Language: English

Subject: Vending stands; Public markets; Markets; Lease and rental services

Abstract: According to the provisions of Republic Act No. 37, the following rules and regulations governing the leasing of public market stalls. The purpose of this Order, all stalls or booths in any public market shall be deemed to be vacated by their present occupants and their lease terminated by a certain period, and the same shall be leased to other applicants.

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Ramie culture in the Philippines

Creator: Cruz, Eugenio E. Ramie

Language: English

Subject: Textile arts; Tropical plants; Plant fibers; Ramie culture

Abstract: Ramie (Boehmeria nivea (Lin.) is a fiber-yielding plant indigenous to China. It is known as China grass in that country and elsewhere. From China, it has been introduced into other parts of the world, namely, Japan, Sumatra, India, the United States, England, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines.

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The Science of Public Administration three problems

Creator: Dahl, Robert A.

Language: English

Subject: Public administration

Abstract: Generalizations derived from the operation of public administration in the environment of one nation-state cannot be universalized and applied to public administration in a different environment. A principle may be applicable in a different framework. But its applicability can be determined only after a study of that particular framework. There can be no truly universal generalizations about public administration without a profound study of varying national and social characteristics imposing on public administration, to determine what aspects of public administration, if any, are truly independent of the national and social setting. Are there discoverable principles of universal validity, or are all principles valid only in terms of a special environment? It follows that the study of public administration inevitably must become a much more broadly based discipline, resting not on a narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and processes, but rather extending to the varying historical, sociological, economic, and other conditioning factors that give public administration its peculiar stamp in each country.

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