Forestry Leaves

Media

Part of Forestry Leaves

Title: Forestry Leaves
Issue Date: Volume XV (Issue No. 3) 1965
Identifier: Forest Day Issue
Publisher: Bureau of Forestry
Year: 1965
Language: English
Rights
Place of publication: Manila
extracted text: L G PR 7 1965 > FoRESTRY L EAVE S ~ Official Publication of the Alumni and Student Body U.P. College of Forestry, College, Laguna I N THIS I SSUE Watershed Management in the Philippines . . . . . . . . • . . Macid Y. Gulcur I /"Development of Incentive Control of Shifting Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . William L. Webb 9 Aras-Asan Timber Company's Approach to the Kaingin Problem ............•....... Jose G. Sanvictores 17 Re-orientation of the Philippine Wood-Using Industry ....................... Nicolas P. Lansigan 21 /Research on Kaingin and Needs for Research . . . . . . . Timoteo Oracion 25 Summary Report on Ambuklao Watershed Reconnaissance Survey .................. Julian R. Meimban, Jr. 31 Timber Utilization Study of Mindanao Logging Operations ........................ Bernardo G. Agaloos 35 Reforestation Upon an Econological Basis ......... Ireneo L. Domingo 41 Pulp and Paper Research and Industry Problems in the Philippines ............ F. N. Tamolang & P. V. Bawagan 45 /Small Lumberman's Approach to the Kaingin Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lorenzo Sarmiento 51 /tegal and Political Aspects of Kaingin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arturo Alafriz . . 53 Stabilization of Road Cut and :Fill Slopes . . . . . . . . Angelo G. Mordeno 55 Bag and Wrapping Papers from Benguet Pine (Pinus lnsularis Endl.) ....... P. V. Bawagan, Jaime 0. Escolano and Lauro A. Y nafoe:z Causes of Warping in Plywood Manufacture ..... Armando A. Villaflor Wood Anatomy of Philippine Red Mahogany and Shorea Teysmanniana Dyer ..... I. T. Zamuco, B. C. de Vela, et al Reforestation Administration Notes ................................. . B. F. Notes ....................................................... . F.P.R.I. Hightlights ............................................... . l<'.P.R.I. Technical Notes ...................................•....... Campus Notes ..........................................•..•.••..•. l<"orestry in the Nev<s .....................•.....•...........•......• Literary Attempts ...........................•......•.............• Sunshine Corner .............................................••.... l<'rom the Mailbag .............................................•... Editorials ......................................................... . 59 65 75 95 97 83 85 103 99 105 109 111 112 I.., FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Vol XV No.,3 Compliments of: LIANGA BAY LOGGING CO., INC. Producer - Manufacturer - Exporters Philippine Mahogany Logs, Lumber & Veneer First to Establish Continuous Forest Inventory Plots MAIN OFFICE: 2nd Floor Makati Bldg. Ayala Ave., Makati Rizal CABLE ADDRESS: "LIANGABAY MANILA" "LIANGABAY LIANGA" CONCESSION: Lianga, Marihatag, Oteiza & San Miguel Surigao del Sur Worb~ to 1.ibt 18!' Anyone con carry his burden, however hard, until nightfall. Anyone can do his work, however. hard, for one day. - RoBERT Louis STEVENSON D ALE CARNEGIE WRITES: One of the most appalling commentaries on our present way of life is that half of our hospital beds are occupied by patients with nervom an<l mental troubles. And a principal cause is that too many people allow themselves to collapse under the brushing burdens of accumulated yesterdays and fearful tomorrows. The answer, as Stevenson says, is to live for today. It may be that part of today's work calls for reviewing the past or planning for tomorrow. But there's no excuse for doing so with panic or regret. Instead we should get the facts and push them on from there. Today is the only time we can possibly live. Let's not turn it into a physical and mental hell by aimless worry about the future or by fretting over the blunders we made yesterday. Remember how a walking trip always seems shorter if we concentrate not on the total distance to our destination but just the distance to the next milepost? In the same ll'~Y· we should concentrate on living within today. Better tomorrows will inevitably allow. . ..,.., \. ~·· .. ,~~ .. ,.,.. ~. . . ,.,, ·' ~ _ . . L..\ ,,,....., . ..... i'. ~-..._ /,.,...,,.. ~ . ~·~ \.-".: ~ . /f ~ .. '· PresidenJ Macapagal with DANR Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano, B.F. Dir. Apolonia F. Rivera, Asst. Dir. ]wm T. Utleg and delegates to the Forester's Conference Sept. 2-3, '64. ~.~ • _::?; ... ~ F~ESTIRS. CONlf.R~~f E . . U OF FORESTRY,. IA . EPTEMHER 2-3. 1964 " ~ i ( ..... r. , H.F. /Jir. Apolonia F. Rivera introducing Sec. Feliciano. ClosillJ! Session Guest Speaker. On the .~ase, (L-to-R) Dr. Gulcur, Sec. Felicfono, Asst. Dir. UtleJ{, Fors. Nable, Ravelo, Manalo & Re_n•., (Div. Chiefs. l Dir. Rivera cunJ{ratulatin11 Sec. f'eliciatro on his speech. ~ (;!':-°;) ~~~) ~pn&lit of tlJe Jlrilippine. «mire of t~e Jrniherrt :of t~e $emrte MESSAGE Forestry day is deserving of national importance as are the rest of our p•blic holidays. Given more significance, it goes a long way in educating our people the need of forest conservation and the dangers wrought by indiscriminate destruction of our forests. Harrowing experiences of nations thrown under the mercy of ravaging floods are lessons our people should be afraid of. Beautiful sights of vast rolling ever gr•ens along our forests and country sides are too precious a nature's gift tor our people to lose. Congratulations to the UP tions people in our national the importance Everyday should be Forestry Day because everyday people from all walks of life enjoy the nll::ilerous blessings of the nation's forest resources. Am as we relish the bou."lties of the forests, we seldom, if ever, pause to think kindly and thankfully of the people who silently labor deep in the woods to make the forest wealth remain \Uldiminished. Everyday we enjoy the blessings of the forests. But if the destruction of forests keeps on unabated we might one day wake up feeling the curse of our own follies • By then all that we can do :is to suffer and weep. Let us on this Forestry Day remember in gratitude the foresters who keep watch on our forests. The people should help the foresters ani their government i.~ protecting and conserving the forest weal.th. The foresters will not relent in their efforts. They will do their job even if by so doing they are deprived of the comforts in life. I join the rest in wishing the country• s foresters more power and the forestry students good luck. ,_ ' • !} ~ ltPefl>NIO F. R Acting Director of Forestry OJJicial DeleRates to the 7th Session of the A.~ia-Pacific Forestry Commis.<Won held in Roturua, New Zealand from Sept. 22 lo October 2, 1964. Director M. R. Mon· .vilud, FPRI, is third from left, (back row) Dr. n. M. Tuntican. CollPge of Forestry, U.P. (8th), For. F. 0. Chinte, Bi.V.ig Lumber Co. (12th), For. F. Tamesis, Phili. Wallfmnrd mid Nasipit, (13th), tmd Foresters F. K~1111dt• (24th\ n11d }. Natonlon (16th), both oj the NCU1ipil Lumber Co., For. M. R. RPye.~. (l"ront Row) extreme le/I, nnd Dir. Apolonia F. Rivera - extreme right - both oj thl' Bureau oJ Forestry, and For. lose Viado, Reforestation Admini.vratio11 OJ/ice, Administrator - second row - extreme right. · --.,-.··- .. .. " Pictured above are (from left to right in coat and tic\: Dr. I>. M. f,anticw1. /Jirector M. It Mon.o;alud, I>irector Apolonia F. Rivero, Administrator Jose R. Viado and Rureau of Forestry Forest Management /Jivision Chief Martin Reye.,, Philippine delegates lo the F AO Asia-Forestry Commission C011fere11ce at Rotorua, New z .. 11Lm1d, s,,,,t. 22 to October 2, 1964. The re.•t are friends who accompanied them to the MIA. Watershed Management In The Philippines~By MACID Y. GULCUR Watershed Management Expert Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1. GENERAL: The expected agricultural and industrial development that has been prophesied through the Socio-Ecnomic Plans for the Philippines has seen a substantial beginning. Today there are indications of an acceleration of this progress in the Country. In spite of such bright prospects, however, a substantial progress in the Philippines can go forward only through interrelated efforts of all lines of agriculture and industry. Industry will look to agriculture for its raw products, and agriculture will look to industry for new and local markets, for help in sharing the state taxes and for the many advantages that come to region where abundant decentralized industry works hand in hand with a successful agriculture. It is tme that, there is a necessity of diverting a portion of present excess labor into productive avenues. These avenues may be in part only through industry, in part through more effective use and development of land and water resources now being neglected. Industrial and agricultural development of the Philippines is predicated upon a number of factors, but in any list of such factors, among the foremost will be widely distributed, is, abundant and cheap water for hydroelectric power, irrigation and municipalities. There is enough, even more than enough water, during rainy season, which very of ten 0 Paper presented at the ForPster's Conference held on September 2-3, 1964 at the GSIS SOCIAL HALL, Arroceros, Manila. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE results in destructive floods throughout the country. But, in a great part of the Philippines, there is water shortage for irrigation, especially in rice fields and almost every municipality suffers from the shortage of drinking water during rainless season. The most important hydroelectric power plants, Ambuklao and Binga also suffer from water shortages during rainless season and have to decrease hydroelectric production ,.,·hich affects industrial development of Luzon Island. What is the reason for this, where there seem to be plenty of water in the Philippines? The answer mainly lies behind the unsound use of soil and water resources of the country. That is where watershed management comes into the picture. 2. DEFINITION: a. Watershed: (Synonym: catchment area, river basin) A watershed is all land area which draim into a stream system upstream froin · its mouth and is surrounded with divides. The watershed of a stream not only has area, length and width, but a third dimension as well, depth. Except for barren rock slopes, the depth of a watershed extends from the top of the vegetation to the confining geologic strata beneath. b. ·watershed Management: Watershed Management implies the wise use of all soil and water resources so as to Page I provide a clean and uniform water supply for beneficial use and to control damaging overflows which are closely related to landuse. Major land use practices mainly include forestry, range management and cultivation which affect watersheds. 3. HISTORY OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: As early as the 13th Century, Louis VI of France promulgated an ordinance under the title "The decree of waters and forests" which indicates the recognition even in those days of the close relation between waters and forests. As a protection against avalanches, the fish ban or protection forest in Switzerland was reserved by a community in the 14th century. The silting of the lagoons near Venice as a result of deforestation in mountain headwaters of the Po and other rivers in Italy, was an early cause of recognition of the effect of forests. · The torrents in the Alps afforded the most striking examples of the relations of forests and lack of forest with water for many years in Austria and France as in Italy. Reforestation of mountains as a means of control of torrents began in Japan in the 17th Cenh1ry. In the beginning of the 20th Century, the history of watershed management in the United States did not lag far behind that of the European countries and reached to the perfect watershed management activities which now cover the whole country, with intensified research activities. In the Philippines, a kind of watershed management practices have been known since 200 B.C. This is rice farming in terraced land which has been wisely used and maintained in Mt. Province, where Page 2 mossy forest protects terraces and regulates water needed for rice irrigation. The locality known all over the World, "BANAUE TERRACES", has been supporting local people without any apparent soil erosion and loss of fertility of soil. The Banaue Terraces cover about 40,000 hectares, with an average slope of 70%. It is a \vonder of hydrologic and engineering know-how of the local people. 4. WHEN RAIN FALLS: The rain, generally, results in streamflow. through vegetative cover and soil. The average rainfall in the Philippines is 99 inches or 248 ems. which is rather high compared with temperate regions. The intensity of rainfall in the Philippines is alarmingly high. The records show that Baguio City experienced 34.6 inches in rainfall per day in 1911. Another important factor, the soil is the biggest and most important reservoir on earth which should be protected at all cost. It has an average depth of half meter, which has been producing foods for humanity. In general, volume composition of an average soil is fifty percent solid and fifty percent pore space, which could be filled with water under conditions where free drainage occurs. That means, one fourth of a soil layer could be filled with water which would be available for plants and streamflow. If there is a thick humus layer, as it has been found under mossy type of forests in the Philippines, as much as one-half inch of water can be held in detention storage by each inch of humus layer. Although this figure is the result of research conducted in other countries, similar investigation by the Baguio Forest Experimental Station have proved the same. When rain falls, a portion of it is intercepted by tree crowns which, in the case of broad leaved forests, sometimes amount to 25 percent of the total annual rainfall. FORESTRY LEAVES The remainder of rain first reaches into the soil and penetrates into it. Through infiltration, the water will later reach the stream as . . . subsurface runoff. This usually takes one to three months in the tropics. \Vhen amount of rain exceeds the infiltration capacity of soiL excess water will run off on surf ace of soil and rush down to stream. This is the destructive water which causes damage downstream during storms. Another portion of water infiltrated into the soil will be consumed by vegetation as evapo-transpiration which amounts up to one third of total annual rainfall in the tropics. Since rainfall is a natural phenomenon, it can not be controlled. But through the vegetation, it is possible to control and regulate water to some extent of which watershed management tells us how to do it. 5. THE ROLE OF FORESTS AND PASTURES IN WATER YIELD: The role of forests and soils in regard to water yields has not always been clearly understood by many people. Some claim that forests increase total water yield, but this has not been borne out by studies of the place of forests in water cycle. The need to distinguish clearly between the total annual discharge of a river and actual behavior of the stream during the different seasons of the year must be emphasized. It is possible, for instance, for the total discharge to remain unchanged tinder some conditions, while the stream regimen itself is so changed that utility of the streamflow is greatly impaired. This is true for an untouched watershed with forest cover. On the other hand, it has been proved that by removing a portion of forest cover, it is possible to increase annual total streamflow which will be available for irrigation and hydroelectric power production where snow is a part of precipitation. There have been conducted several studies on this important subjects in other FORESTRY DAY ISSUE countries, but no investigation of this kind has been conducted in the Philippines. The following examples are given in order to emphasize the effect of forest, pasture and land-use on water and sediment yield, based on research findings: a. Land-Use ( Missisippi, USA) Oak forest produced sediment as: acre Ton/per 0.7 Cotton field plowed on the contour Barren abandoned field Cotton field plowed up and down (eroded over 2 years) b. Fire 69 160 195 (California, USA) Erosion from unburned brush watershed cubic yard/ per acre 0.1 Erosion from burned adjacent brush watershed 48 to 137 It revealed that more than one thousand times more sediment yielded in burned watershed. c. Runoff (Surface runoff) Runoff percent (Oklahoma, USA) of Total Rainfall Natural oak forest produced 1 % Abandoned cotton field produced 47% Before planting an old field produced 40% After 22 years of plantation 2% U odisturbed grassland produced 0.4% After burning same grassland produced 61 % d. Forest land management (Pine tree watershed, USA) Area: 88 acre surf ace runoff before watershed treatment 69% after planting 100,000 trees 44% Page 3 e. Effect of clearcutting of trees (Japan) Increase of 20% and greater in rates of runoff following clearcutting and removal of useful timber has been reported. f. Effect of partial cutting (Japan) A selection cutting in which 45% of the volume of a sprucefir stand was cut, streamflow increased 4.7 inches (in a region where annual precipitation was about 55 inches) Of this increase, 1.2 inches was in summer, 3.5 inches in winter time. g . Infiltration (Generally, and depending on soil type) Infiltration mature forest Capacity with deep soil 0.30---0.50 inches/hr. thick sod cover 0.20---0.30 " cultivated soil 0.10---0.20 " " bare soil less than o .. 10 " h. PhUippines According to a recent reconnaissance survey, conducted by the Bureau of Forestry with the cooperation of the Reforestation Administration, Bureau of Soils, Parks and Wildlife Office, and National Power Corporation, the siltation and annual sedimentation rate in Ambuklao Reservoir in Mt. Province was 2.6 million cubic meters annually in 1950-1952. A recent estimate has shown that the rate now is 5.5 million cubic meters, under 36 percent of forest cover. This corresponds to an average of 87 cubic meters per hectare per year for the whole watershed. After those examples, the role of forests could be summarized as follows: THE ROLE OF FORESTS: l. The influence of forest in reducing floods is usually large where the floods result from surface runoff in storms of high Page 4 intensity exceeding the infiltration capacity of denuded soil. It may be negligible in those storms in which rainfall exceeds the total storage capacity of the drainage basin. 2. In floods resulting from surface runoff, the heights of the crests are reduced and the times of occurrence are retarded by reforestation. 3. The ratio of maximum to minimum flow tends to be lower as the protective influence of vegetation is more effective. 4. The debris and sediment carried by floods may be more important than the volume of water as a source of flood damage. 5. In reduction of floods, vegetation may be effective in reducing surf ace runoff to a minimum and in retarding the rate of drainage of water. In major storms when the total storage capacity of a drainage basin is far exceeded, vegetation, by increasing the storage capacity or retarding release of water, has only a limited influence. In general, we can say that: A forest cover under certain conditions tends to equalize the runoff throughout the year, to increase the storage capacity of the watershed (especially where the soils are thin and heavy and impervious) and to reduce soil erosion. Reductions in forest density in many situations have been associated with greater flows during the low or rainless season. Forest removal, if followed by a landuse practice which causes a great reduction in infiltration, will obviously prevent storm water from reaching the ground water reservoirs which sustain low water stream (rainless period stream/low), especially kaingined areas, and thus causing high water during rainy period and very low water during rainless period. FORESTRY LEA YES 6. HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE EROSION IN THE PHILIPPINES: A watershed is considered to be damaged when surface runoff and erosion on its channels are accelerated by the activities of man. Thus the effects of watershed damage are felt not only in the damaged part of the watershed, but in places that may be many miles away. Evidence of existing and potential watershed damage can be seen on the land if the observer knows what to look for. A look at the effects of several land uses in a number of places in the Philippines will illustrate some of the common evidences of watershed damage, and their causes. These signs may help the observer detect damages and judge the need for watershed protection in his own region or district: a. On slopes away from channels. ( 1) Muddy run-off on slopes during and after rain (2) Mud flows ( 3) Lateral ridges ( 4) Rills ( 5) Gullies ( 6) Erosion pedestals ( 7) Perched twigs ( 8) Benched deposits ( 9) Erosion pavements (IO) Brush or grass on mounds ( 11 ) Exposed roots ( 12) Erosion confirming evidences (a) perched pebbles ( b) perched clumps of moss ( c) exposed, uncharred roots ( 13) Exposed root crowns (14) Unburned collars of root crowns ( 15) Deposits of eroded soils ( 16) U nscorched collars on rocks ( 17) Exposed soils and sub-soil (18) Exposed rocks or bed-rocks b. In established stream channels. (19) Muddy run-off in streams (20) Deposition of sand, gravel, rock and burned debris in stream channel FORESTRY DAY ISSUE ( 21) Shoaling of streams (a sand bank creating a shoal) ( 22) Channel gauging (23) Bank and stream bed cutting (unstable stream banks) ( 24) Reservoirs, lakes sedimented and silted ( 25) High water level, flush floods during rain storm c. In undisturbed and unburned areas where there is no evidence of erosion. ( 26) Undisturbed litter and humus ( 27) Normal soil profile (28) Nonnal, rounded bottom in arroyos and creeks ( 29) Rocks covered with moss in stream beds, old rocks stabilized ( 30) Grass and trees growing in channel bottoms ( 31) Clear water, low water level in streams 7. WATERSHED PROBLEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: a. Natural resources of the country are being destroyed as: Valuable topsoil has been washed away. Forests and pastures, which the entire population depend on for utilization and export, have been destroyed. Fish production has been decreased. Quality of water has been spoiled and polluted. Unfavorable changes in climate has been occurring. b. Frequency and magnitude of floods increased in the recent decades. In fact, the annual flood damage has been estimated as P40 million by the Bureau of Public Works. There are indications that actual damage would be much higher, if a true survey is conducted. c. Reservoirs and lakes are being filled up with silt and sediment. As a result, the life expectancy of reservoirs for hydroelecPagl' 5 tric purposes is being decreased, causing loss in millions of pesos. In the case of lakes and rivers fish production in fresh water, which the entire nation depend on, is being jeopardized. d. Water shortage during dry period causes low production in agriculture especially in irrigated rice fields. Furthermore, water shortage creates problems for municipalities and limits expansion of industry which usually depends on clear and continuous water. 8. FACTORS AFFECTING WATERSHEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES: What are the factors destroying watersheds? Some of the factors destroying watersheds are man-made and it can certainly be controlled. Some of them are natural which cannot be controlled. Destructive factors, with natural phenomenon, are summarized as follows: a. High intensity and long duration of storms, especially during moonsoon time. b. Very steep topography in higher eleyation, sometimes more than 100 percent. c. Shallow soil which can not absorb enough water to minimize runoff. d. Unsound land-use without any soil conservation practices in cultivation which can be listed below: ( 1) Kaingining (Shifting Cultivation) The latest figure, revealed in the Kaingin Conference amounts to 172,000 hectares of forests being cleared annually through kaingining by 60,000 families. This includes the forest land released for agriculture. The usual practice in kaingining is to cut trees. and bum them. If kaingineneros intend to stay permanently, they sometimes terrace it, plant upland variety of rice first, followed by root crops until soil fertility is reduced through erosion. Later, when soil is not fertile Page 6 any more they plant fruit trees. If they do not intend to stay, (this is the fact mostly), they practice agriculture for 2-3 years and shift to another place to repeat the operation. In most cases, kaingineros follow logging operation where some of the trees are already cut. If kaingining is practic~d in mossy type of forests in high elevation with steep slopes, it is more dangerous, because top soil is washed away in a few years and the water-holding capacity of the soil is decreased. As a result, rainfall at once becomes runoff rushing down hills, carrying great amount of soil and rock, instead of penetrating into the soil which will otherwise be released gradually to streams during dry season. In addition to kaingining, cultivation of agricultural crops and the method of cultivation may cause damage in general. ( 2) Logging Operation There are four methods used in logging operation in the Philippines. - (a) Skyline method, supported by tramline for transportation. (b) highleading method supported by truck transportation. ( c ) Tractor skidding and truck transportation. ( d) Carabao skidding and truck transportation. Since rather heavy machinery are used, soil and vegetative cover are being spoiled in many instances. Althomrh vegetation supported by natural regeneration will cover soil in a short period, usually in 2 to 3 years after logging operation, sheet and gully erosion continue for sometime, especially if vegetable cover is destroyed by fire or kaingining. FORESTRY LEAVES Properly conducted and maintained, logging operation may not be so destructive, if enough protection can be provided later. ( 3) Road Construction: One of the destructive factors is highway and logging roads, especially on very steep slopes. In the Mountain Province of Luzon Island and in Mindanao, the topography is very rough, more than 50%. When the natural slope is destroyed through cuts and fills during road construction, it is difficult to stabilize the slopes. Observations revealed that culvert places and distances, are not properly laid; headwalls are not constructed; ditches are not maintained properly; besides improper road location. After road construction, active gully erosion with man-made slides start and will not be stabilized naturally even after 20 years. If this is practiced near lakes, reservoirs or stream channels, very severe siltation takes place which fills up reservoirs, thus reducing available water storage capacity. ( 4) Burning: Although it is a damaging factor, forest fires are mainly limited to pine forest areas in Mt. Province. Grass or cogon fire is much more destructive, because it is repeated every year by livestock owners to get fresh grass, before wet period starts. In Mountain Province, forest fires mainly destroy seedlings and newly planted areas. V\7hen rainy season comes, loose soil is washed down, thus carrying top soil and exposing sub-soil and parent rock. ( 5) Overgrazing Overgrazing is another factor, especially, if coordinated with fire. In this case the pasture and cogon land will FORESTRY DAY ISSUE be degraded and ready to be washed down, when rainy season comes. (6) Mining Mining activities tend to cause increased runoff, erosion and other watershed damage. Moreover, the effect of mining can of ten be seen for many miles downstream. The mud released from mines will pollute and silt rivers, killing fish and other animal life. 9. CLASSIFICATION OF WATERSHEDS JN THE PHILIPPINES: A watershed often has many problems which cannot be separated. But some of the problems might be much more important than the others, depending on the use of watershed. a. Watersheds under good conditions: The vegetative cover has not been touched, such as under virgin forest of dipterocarp and mossy species, found in Mt. Province and in high altitudes in Mindanao Island and in other islands. b. Flood-producing watersheds: Floods usually cause damage to agricultural land, properties and even the loss of human lives, such as in Pasig, Cagayan, and Cotabato rivers. c. Sediment - producing watersheds: Sediment damage is mostly felt in those kinds of watersheds, decreasing of life expectancy of reservoir for hydro-electric purposes, destroying fish production such as in Ambuklao watershed and Laguna, respectively. In Laguna more than 100,000 families directly depend on the Lake which is being rapidly silted. d. Water shortage pronounced in dry seasons: Almost every municipality suffers water shortage in the Philippines during dry period. In those watersheds, water is silted and polluted which is not available for Page i drinking purposes, unless costly purification plants are constructed. e. Watersheds affected by several factors: Jn many watersheds, flood damage, high siltation and sedimentation rate, water shortage in dry period are prevalent throughout the Philippines. 10. REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR REHABILITATION OF WATERSHEDS: How do we approach to solve the problem in watersheds which threaten national economy and should be taken care of? a. There are two schools of view along this line. (1) Engineers: Engineers believe that the only solution to prevent floods and regulate water is to construct large dams. They do not give consideration to land-use, especially in headwaters where rainfall is controlled. ( 2) Foresters and Agriculturists: They believe that water can be controlled through land-use and vegetative cover. This is true to some degree as to minimize floods and to decrease sedimentation and siltation. The best method would be coordination of land-use practice with small an<l big engineering devices, provided that they will be economically justified. Construction of a multi-purpose dam will mostly be beneficial to downstream people. But upstream people will not be affected too much. Besides, upstream measures would be much cheaper which government and people together can afford. In the case of upstream measures, both upstream and downstream people benefit from it. Page 8 b. Kind of remedial measures: (I) Protective measures: These measures are often cheap, effective and pref erred to remedial measures which should be avoided, if possible: (a) The reconnaisance surveys in the Philippines indicate that climate is suitable for quick recovery of destroyed vegetative cover. Protection from kaingining, fire and grazing will suffice for a thick tree or grass cover, stabilizing active areas such as rills and gullies. Such effect of protection can be seen in around Ambuklao reservoir. ( b) Sound forest and range management including logging operation will prevent soil erosion, even on steep slopes. The natural regeneration in Dipterocarp and Pine forests, will come in shortly in abundance, further stopping soil movement, even on shallow soil. ( c) Location and method of construction of highways, logging, and skidding roads often greatly spoil critical watersheds and accelerate erosion. Sound construction methods should be followed. ( d) Necessary precautions should be taken in farming practices on steep land such as contouring, rotation fertilizing planting of close growing agricultural crops, including terracing. ( 2) Remedial measures. (a) Planting of trees and sowing of grass will recover open land. ( b) Terracing of agricultural land will prevent overflow and soil erosion. ( c) Installation of small engineering devices in gullies, stream and fixation of newly cut road banks with (Continued on page 20) FORESTRY LEAVES PAPER INDUSTRIES CORPORATION OF THE PHILIPPINES GENERAL MANAGERS: A.SORIANO Y CIA. SORIANO BLDG., PASEO DE ROXAS, MAKATI, RIZAL P.O. BOX- 942-MANI LA - _, --.. Lo •• , ••• ~ -i ,_,,,.,, .. .... The win11in11 float of the Colle11e of Forestry, at the Lo_ralty Dav Parade, Oct. 10, 1964 as seen from the balcony of the Baker llall, C.A. Campus. Prof. mid Mrs. T. Delizo and Regional Re/orestatio11 O/jicer Ciriaco G11lutirn and Forestrv students o" a Nurseries and Silviculture Excursion to the Northern Provinces at the RA Pncdal Nur.rerv in Baguio City. Forestry Stude11ts at the Caniaw Reforestation Project, I.S. In the backRround i.~ the narra plaritation o/ the project. . ;~-: : ~ •l~i ',·· u. Silviculture Students under Pro/. T. Delizo and For. I. Domin~o, Instructor, listening to a lecture at a Planting Area in Baguio City. by Development Of Incentive Control WILLIAM L. WEBB Professor, College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y. and Visiting Professor and Pro;ect Leader University of the PhiUppines State Uni.verity of New York College of Forestry College, Laguna Of Shifting Cultivation 1 Shifting cultivation has undoubtedly been in practice since long before the beginning of recorded history. The local names given to this agricultural system in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the tropical islands vary with the local language. However, whatever the local name, the cycle is the same: cutting the forest, burning the slash, planting crops in the wood ashes, and then after a few years moving to a new site ( Gourou, 1961; Tamesis, 1960; Bartlett, 1956; de Schlippe, 1956). It seems certain that this system developed and persisted as an ecological response to the challenge of climate and vegetation which made it possib!e for primitive agricultural people to survive and maintain their population in a delicate balance with their natural environment. As long as human population density is low, shifting cultivation may be an acc.eptable practice in the earliest stages of the utilization of the natural resources of a country (Lee, 1961; Gourou, 1961). However, as population density increases the then outdated traditional practice of shifting cultivation must be eliminated to protect permanent forests and to prevent soil erosion, degradation, and depletion. Many countries have now reached the point in their history where shifting cultivation can 1 Prepared for presentation at the National Conference on the Kaingin Problem, March 12 and 13, 1964, Manila, Philippines. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE no longer be tolerated. Yet the elimination of such an ancient practice is not easy. Traditions of centuries must be broken down. The old responses are no longer appropriate and must be stamped out. In the Philippines shifting cultivation, called Kaingin, has clearly outlasted its usefulness. The population has increased to 30 million human beings and there is no longer enough land area to permit the continued existence of the outdated Kaingin system side by side with a deve1oping modern industrial economy. In 1964 it is clear to every economist, to every sociologist, and to every expert in land-use that Kaingin agriculture must he controlled and eliminated or the vast forest wealth may be permanently destroyed. invaluable soils will be washed out to se~ and these be~mtiful islands may become a barren land of drought, flood and famine. But no problem is ever solved by merely recognizing the problem as a problem. This National Conference will not serve a very great role if the participants merely recognize that Kaingin is a problem in the Philippines. In fact all of us came here knowing that to be true. This conference will be rnluable only if every participant carries away a new resolve to look at the Kaingin problem with fresh concern, from a different point of view, and with a new resolve to find and use every means toPage 9 ward its solution. In the terms of the British historian Arnold Toynbee, this problem is a challenge to the Filipino people to which they must respond; if the response is not adequate the challenge may become an overpowering force of destruction. Every challenge must produce some response. Kaingin is a major challenge to the Filipino people. How will they respond? As I have read some of the books and papers that describe shifting agriculture in various parts of the world, it has become clear that there are two different aspects of the problem which must be recognized and discussed separately to avoid confusion. First, we must recognize the ancient and traditional form of Kaingin practiced by the less civilized groups of people who generally live in the remote areas and usually have a low population density. The agricultural practices of the Hanunoo people of Mindoro, described in such detail by Conklin ( 1957), are an excellent example. These peope have practiced shifting cultivation for centuries. Their agricultural methods are traditional and culturally oriented with little evidence of influence by more modem agricultural practices. Because their population density is low and because they return to the same Kaingin sites after a long period of fallow their total effect on the land is slight. Several recent publications have emphasized that under some social and biological conditions such shifting cultivation may be tolerated. (Phillips ( 1961), for example, pleads for more thorough ecological knowledge before shifting cultivators are forced to become scanty agriculturists to avoid possible disastrous biological and social consequences. Bedard ( 1960) points out that there may be "benign aspects" of shifting cultivation which should be recognized and taken advantage of by forest managers. Nye and Greenland ( 1960) in their review of the relation of shifting cultivation to soil productivity emPage IO phasize that as long as the fallow period is long the depletion and deterioration of the soil is usually not critical. The Hanunoo and similar groups of people with a low population density have not been and are not now a serious threat to the natural resources of the Philippines. Eventually these so-called primitive people will come into closer contact with the main-stream of Philippine society. Until that time it does not seem necessary to focus major concern on their agricultural practices. 1be second group of people who practice shifting agriculture are the critical problem. These Filipinos are a part of the main-stream of Philippine society, who practice Kaingin agriculture largely because they can find no alternative employment. Many of them are emigrants to the forest seeking land to farm - as an alternative to starvation. Yet destruction and starvation go hand in hand as the Kaingin cycle is repeated by thousands of families creating clearing after clearing in endless helplessness. Included with this group are the "professional Kaingineros" who make Kaingin for a land hungry capitalist who provides some cash or credit incentive with the understanding that any rights or title to the land will be transferred to him. Although such a capitalist is a particularly malicious squatter on government land, the basic problem is the same whether the Kaing.in is created merely to make a living or to gain control of the land. This type of shifting cultivation is common to forested tropical countries at a certain stage of their economic and social development (Bedard, 1960). As agriculture and industry develop and the people are employed in enterprises more productive than shifting agriculture, there will be a decrease and eventual elimination of the FORESTRY LEAVES practice of Kaingin. Therefore, the ultimate solution to the Kaingin problem in the Philippines undoubtedly lies in the modernization of agricultural practices, improvement of land tenure, and in the employment of a large percenta~e of the population in industrial plants. 2 \Ve may conclude then that the ultimate solution to the Kaingin problem is: - provide the people tdth an attractive alternative. Can the Philippines wait for agriculthe Kaingin problem will go away? I know of no land-use experts who believe that tural and industrial development so that the soil, water, and forest resources of the Philippines can withstand the present pressure that long. There must be an intermediate period - starting right now - during which action is taken to at least slow up the forces of destruction and preserve the natural resources until the ultimate solution is reached. In other words, the challenge must be faced squarely and a response must be made now. This nation is near a point of no return - a point where a suitable response must be made before the challenge becomes overwhelming. Whenever mankind is faced with such a challenge there seems to be one universal response: we establish rules which say "Thou Shalt Not". Primitive societies establish taboos which threaten the violator with punishment from supernatural forces. More advanced societies establish rules which are enforced by social pressures or punishment. In our modern democratic societies we are experts at passing laws, most of which prohibit and restrict antisocial actions and we establish fines and penalties for violators. We seem to believe 2 The beautifully written description of the landuse problem in Mt>xico written by Tom Gill (1951) should be studied by every Filipino. The landuse and peoole of Mexico and the Philipoines are just enough different to empha~ize the similarity of the problem. In the movin!!: language of Tom Gill there is a commwiication of the urgent need for a solution. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE that any problem will go away if we pass a restrictive law. Yet there is a great deal of evidence that no law can be effectively enforced unless it satisfies a basic and fundamental need of the people to whom it applies (Francois, 1950). Phillips ( 1961) says that to accomplish any objective "The spirit of the people must be evoked . . . without this the administration - even a national one - will expend time, energy, money, and much patience in striving to do for the people what they should want to do for themselves." In the Philippines great effort has been devoted to control of Kaingin by restrictive laws. Existing laws appear to be soundly written; they clearly say "Thou Shalt Not Create Kaingin". Also, they clearly state that if the law is not obeyed the violator will be punished by jail terms and fines (Anon., 1960). Are these restrictive laws effective? Apparently they are not. The military forces of the Philippine Constabuary, the police powers of the Bureau of Forestry, and the forest guards seldom bring a kainginero to court. When they do, the law often is not applied. The reasons for this laxity in law enforcement are well known: 1. The police power is seldom used because the policeman himseH realizes the Kainginero usually is not a bad man - merely a poor and underprivileged man. 2. The court officials are sympathetic to the Kainginero because they know he is a poor hardworking individual trying to feed his family. 3. The political leaders at all levels often intercede on the side of the kainginero because they know him as a reasonable and unfortunate citizen. 4. Everybody involved realizes that once a judgment is rendered against the Kainginero he will serve his jail term and then return to his illegal Page 11 practice because he knows no other alternative except to starve and watch his family starve with him. From this it becomes apparent that the people do not believe these restrictive laws prohibiting Kaingin making satisfy a basic and fundamental need. Then is it reasonable to expect that more restrictions will be effective? Will more policemen apprehend more of the law breakers? Will more court officials render judgments against Kaingineros if they are empowered to give larger fines and longer jail sentences? Will political leaders stop intervening in favor of Kaingineros just because the penalties for law violation are greater? Even if restrictions are greatly increased and enforced will the Kaingineros be able to find alternate employment and stop the illegal practice? The answer to each of these questions is probably no. It seems most likely that more restrictions and greater penalties will lead to less law enforcement rather than more. This is not to suggest that the existing Kaingin laws can or should be repealed. Nor does it mean that better restrictive practices should not be sought. Perhaps new laws are needed, laws which can be enforced - laws which the police, the courts, the politicians, and the people can see are in the best interests of all the people. Only then will the restrictive approach to Kaingin control be effective. Although restrictive laws are a part of the control needed to reduce forest destruction, we must conclude that restrictive laws alone cannot provide enough protection to the forests and the soils to ensure the perpetuation of these natural resources. Some other response must be added to the restrictive laws to provide adequate protection. What other type of response is there? There seems to be only one other method which may reduce the amount of destrucPage 12 tion: the development of incentive controls. These incentive controls say to the citizen: if you refrain from this undesirable action you will be given an advantage which is worth your efforts. The approach is positive rather than negative. Incenth·e laws and procedures can be developed to help control the destruction caust:d by Kaingin agriculture. There are several successful examples from other countries. However, to be successful these incentive controls must be culturally oriented -they must evoke the spirit of the people. To be successful in the Philippines they must arise from the minds of creative and imaginative Filipinos who have a complete and instinctive understanding of the culture of their people. As a resident in your country for two years I do not have this understanding. I can only provide some general examples and ask some questions. My hope is that all of you, or some of you, or perhaps only one of you will be stimulated to think in new directions and with new insight. Incentive controls seem to fall into three general categories: {I) Incentives to Kaingineros to stop their destructive practices. { 2) Incentives to local governments to deal effectivey with the kaingin problem and to enforce restrictive laws. { 3) Incentives to forest concessionaires for protection of the forest from destmction by Kaingineros. The general examples given here do not apply to the Philippines. They must be modified and adapted to the social and cultural patterns of the people, to the economics of the country, and to the political life of the citizens. Incentives to the Kaingineros I believe we will all agree that the life of the Kainginero is not an easy one. ReFORESTRY LEAVES peatedly he must fight against nature to grow a few subsistence crops. As he fights, he must realize it is a losing battle. When he loses the battle in one site due to decreasing fertility, erosion, and competing vegetation, he must move on to a new site to start the battle over again. Most Kaingineros are trapped in their way of life; many would choose another way of life if given an alternative - a way to get out of the trap. One way to "control" Kaingin is to use the "TAUNGYA" system. This is the establishment of an agricultural - silvicultural cycle (Bartlett, 1956) to use the labor of the Kaingin farmer to convert low value forest to one of more desirable species of higher value. This is a true incentive control that permits creation of clearings in certain places. In repayment for this permit to raise crops, the Kainginero is required to plant and care for forest trees which the land owner desires to grow. after the agricultural portion of the cycle is completed. This system has been used rather widely and successfully in several countries. It has been tried to a limited extent in the Philippines. Has it been given an adequate trial here? Can the rules and procedures be adapted to social and biological conditions in the Philippines and become an effective method for reducing the destructive forces of shifting agriculture? Incentives could also be developed to lengthen the cycle of agricultural use of a particular site. As the length of the cycle is extended, the destruction of forest and soil resources is diminished. If every Kaingin now extending in the Philippines could be made a permanent farm there would be little need for concern about the destructive effects of shifting cultivation. The present length of the cut-bum-plant-move cycle is usually two or three years. If the time between moves could be extended FORESTRY DAY ISSUE by even a year or two, the total destruction would be significantly reduced. We know that a Kainginero moves to ,a new site only when the fertility of the soil is reduced by cropping or erosion or when competing vegetation, such as cogon grass (Imperato spp.), limits the productivity of the area. Would the use of chemical fertilizers maintain the productivity of the soil? Would the use of chemical sprays reduce the competition from competing vegetation? Could the Kainginero be induced to stay for a longer period - perhaps indefinitely - on a well-chosen site if he were subsidized with the fertilizers and chemicals needed? It should not be necessary to emphasize that such incentives should be provided only on carefully selected sites with suitable soil and slopes where accelerated erosion would not create a permanent and extensive loss of soil. 3 A third example of incentive control to the Kainginero involves establishment of permanent farms within the permanent forest. We know that within most permanent forest areas there are small plots which could be farmed - areas of _good soil on level land. Could such areas be used as a tool to control illegal Kaingin-making? Let us suppose that a single family is assigned to develop such an area within the permanent forest with the understanding that this privilege is granted in exchange for prevention of any other agricultural development within a specified region around their farm. In a sense this farm family becomes the permanent forest guard of an area and their compensation is the opportunity to establish and maintain their farm. These farmerguards would have to clearly understand that they would lose their privileges if they enlarged their farms, shifted their operations, or permitted Kaingin-making in the area under their protection. Obviously 3 Nye and Greenland (1960) provide a comprehensive re"iew of effects of fertilizers on productivity of tropical soils under shifting cultivation. Page 13 these families would have to be carefully selected. Would this system work in the Philippines? Incentives to Local Governments? Under present conditions in the Philippines local governments have great incentives to encourage Kaingin-making. Local officials can see good reasons why the citizens of their Barrio or Municipality should be permitted to raise crops on "trnused" land. Although they may realize that forest trees have value and that forest industry will eventually provide employment for many people these officials must deal with today's problems - today's hunger is more urgent than tomorrows jobs. Let us suppose that in the future, each barrio, each municipality, and each province which contains a permanent forest area were to receive a cash payment based on the size of the forest and on the freedom of that area from Kaingin. Then a situation has been created under which the local government will lose income if it permits the development of Kaingin. Perhaps with such an incentive the political leaders would not seek lenient treatment for those who violate the anti-Kaingin laws; perhaps court officers would look on the violators as enemies of the people and see that the fines and jail sentences were imposed; and perhaps law enforcement agencies would be mobilized to bring violators to the court. I personally believe that a modification of this system could be put into practice tomorrow. Not by the government but by individual forest concessionaires. If an individual concessionaire established a considerable number of scholarships in the communities adjacent to his concession there would be local interest to keep the number of scholarship high. However, let us suppose that the number of scholarships would be reduced when illegal Kaingin Page 14. was found or when there was interference with the judicial procedure. Under this circumstance the local people might clamor for law enforcement. The formula to determine how many scholarships would be an adequate incentive would have to be worked out, and the extent of reduction of scholarships if Kaingin \Vere not controlled needs a lot of study. However, the cost to a forest concessionaire would be very small compared to the cost of Kaingin to the country and to the concessionaire and his heirs. Incentives to local governments also might be made by returning a portion of the forest charges directly to the barrios, municipalities and provinces. So long as the proceeds from the forest management go largely to the general fund of the national treasury there will be little local concern for sustained yield management of forests. But when local people see their own community facilities being developed with funds produced by the forest, they will learn to respect the- forest rather than to consider it merely as an obstacle to agriculture and the source of an occasional house pole and some firewood. It might also be desirable to establish community forests to instill in the local people an understanding and appreciation of the value of forests. If, for example, the community-owned forests built and maintained the local schools, many citizens would attempt to minimize forest destruction. Incentives to Concessionaires Under present conditions in the Philippines, more than 95 percent of the forest land is owned and controlled by the national government. Responsibility for supervision and management of these lands is vested in three government agencies of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. These understaffed and overFORESTRY LEAVES worked agencies are expected to function efficiently in the management and protection of the renewable natural resources of the nation. Actual harvesting of timber is done by "concessionaires". licensed by the government to extract and utilize the forest products from a specified area of forest land. The concessionaire pays the government for the forest product removed on the basis of a set of fixed forest charges, which at present are low in comparison with the commercial value of the products harvested. The Bureau of Forestry has the chief responsibility for forest protection and the concessionaires assist by providing forest guards and by reporting establishment of Kaingin on their concession. This system is ineffective because the concessionaire is not directly responsible for Kaingin control - he only assists the employees of the Bureau of Forestry. What would happen if positive responsibility for forest protection was placed directly on the shoulders of the concessionaires? This responsibility would involve preparation of a detailed and effective forest protection plan, employment and effective use of forest guards, and development and use of incentives to local people and governments to help control kaingin. Unless each concessionaire was able to control Kaingin, his license would be cancelled with no questions asked. This would indeed be a very strong incentive to effective forest protection. Obviously concessionaires could not shoulder this responsibility unless they were given a long term license. Equally obviously their forest protection efforts woud have to be reviewed by a Bureau of Forestry officer who was well paid and not subject to monetary or political pressure. Such a radical departure from current philosophy requires a great deal of thought FORESTRY DAY ISSUE and development by government foresters and the concessionaires. Perhaps it requires additional legislation. However, it seems a method for developing a new sense of responsibility in those individuals who are receiving direct and substantial income from forest management and protection. Epilogue Any 1eview of the World literature on the problem of shifting cultivation reveals the enormity of the problem. It also reveals that men have not yet been able to come to grips with the problem enough to deal with it effectively. We are still at the stage of "pointing with alarm" and "viewing with despair". In spite of the complexities and difficulties, new thinking and new energies must he brought to bear before there can be hope of solution. The old laws and rules are not doing the job, so new approaches must be found. One approach is suggested here - the use of incentives - which in the hands of creative and imaginative people may become an additional force for amelioration of the destruction. Any person who advocates the use of incentives mns the risk of being called impractical and naive. In advocating study of incentive control of Kaingin I leave myself wide open to that charge. By setting down only general and non-detailed examples I compound the risk of having the "practical" people of the world call me a "dreamer". That is a risk that I am willing to take. Solutions to such problems must start from the mind as the result of an intellectual effort. If my simple and impractical examples only stir up some opposition they will have done their bit to stimulate human minds to comprehend a little more clearly. With comprehension may come resolution. The challenge is made! I sincerely Page 15 hope that there will be a response from people in government and from private enterprise. Summary Kaingin agriculture in the Philippines is an example of shifting agriculture, widely practiced in the tropics. Control of Kaingin in the Philippines is urgently needed because of extensive destruction of valuable forests, conversion of valuable forest land to vegetation of very low value, and exposure of erodible soils on steep slopes to accelerated erosion. Kaingin-making by the more primitive peoples of the Philippines is not a major problem because of the delicate ecological balance bern;een their agricultural practices and the environment. However, Kaingin as practiced by the more civilized groups of Fil;pinos is very destructive and must be brought under control as rapidly as possible. Although the ultimate control of Kaingin lies in fuller development of the agriculture and industrial economy of the country, the Philippine government and people cannot wait for this ultimate solution. Forces of destruction are proceeding too rapidly to delay in seeking temporary solutions and ways of reducing the amount of_ destruction. Philippine laws prohibiting Kaingin seem adequate. However,· these laws are not culturally oriented and usually cannot be adequately enforced. This lack of law enforcement is the result of social, economic and political factors and· because such restricth·e laws do not provide an alternative way of life to the Kainginero. A frequently heard proposal is to make the restrictive laws more effective by increasing the penalties for law violation. It is quite certain that increasing the penalPage 16 ties will not make the Kaingin laws more effective. In fact they may become less so. Incentive laws and regulations should be studied and developed for application to the Philippines. Such incentive regulations seek to provide benefits for the reduction of the destructive practices rather than merely prohibiting. Incentives should be found to encourage individual Kaingineros to not destroy the forest or to reduce their effects; incentives should be found to encourage local governments to deal effectively with Kaingin control; and incen" lives should . be found to force the forest concessionaires to assume major responsibility for forest protection. A few examples of incentive controls are given. However, these general examples are only illustrative Specific methods which are in harmony with .Philippine social, economic, and political life can only be worked out by creative and imaginative Filipinos. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous, 1960 Stop illegal Kaingin. Agr. Information Div .. Dept. of Agr. and Nat. Resources, Quezon City, 8 pp. Bartlett, H. H. 1956 Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. In Man's Role In Changing The Face Of The Eart. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1193 pp.; pages 692-270. Bedard, P. \V. 1960 Shifting cultirntiou - benign and malignant aspects. Proceedings of the Fifth World Forestry Congress, Seattle, Wash., pp. 20162021. Conklin, H. C. 1957 Hanunoo Agriculture; A report on an integral system of shifting cultivation in the Philippines. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Forestry Development Paper No. 12, 209 pp. F AO Staff, 1957 . Shifting cultivation. Unasylva 11(1): 9-11. Gourou, Pierre 1961 The tropical world, its social and economic conditions and its future status. Longmans Green Ltd., London 159 pp. (Continued on page 20) FORESTRY LEAVES Aras-Asan Timber Company's Approach To The Kaingin Problem • By ,dOSE G. SANVICTORES Chairman af the Board In May, 1962, a seminar attended by high officials of the Bureau of Forestry and representatives of lumber companies was held in Aras-asan, Cagwait, Surigao del Sur, to discuss the problem of kaingin in its various aspects. This speaker published in the same year a pamphlet titled "A New Approach to the Kaingin Problem" to trace the roots of kaingin, to analyze its present situation, to crystallize it in its proper perspective and to present its best possible solutions. Three measures were proposed in broad outlines; namely: 1 . Enlist the active and sustained cooperation of the muncipal officials by giving the municipal governments a share of the income and other taxes that lumber companies pay to the national government. 2. Employ kaingineros in forest work so they can earn a li\'ing without violating the law. 3. Enter into cooperati\'e agreement with kaingineros and others to plant forest trees of economic value, especially fast growing species like Albizzia falcata. This paper is a report on the work accomplished and the difficulties met. With respect to the first proposal, EN. LIST THE ACTIVE AND .SUSTAINED .COOPERATION OF THE MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS BY GIVING THE MUNICI0 Paper read by Jose· Sanvictores before the National Conference on the Kaingin Problems on .\farch 13, 1964, held at the FILOIL Auditorium \[anila. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE PAL GOVERNMENTS A SHARE OF THE INCOME AND OTHER TAXES THAT LUMBER COMPANIES PAY TO THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT - we can say that we haYe met with enthusiastic response from the officials of the municipalities in which our timber concession is situated. Since our operations are based in Arasasan. Cagwait, Surigao del Sur, we filed and paid all our income tax in the said municipality in 1959. However, in 1961 we paid only to Cagwait the first installment of our income tax. The second installment was divided among the four municipalities where our concession is located which are: Cagwait, Marihatag, Tago and Tandag. In 1962 Bayabas, formerly a barrio of Cagwait, was set up as a separate municipality. In the particular case of Cagwait, which receives the biggest share, the Company's income tax is its support. The share of the other municipalities represents an appreciable portion of their income. The. resolutions and letters we have received from them testify to their support and cooperation. Another sign of support, this time direct from the people themselves, was my election as municipal councilor of Cagwait in 1959 and the election in 1963 of four ·employees of the company as councilors. This is simple proof, I believe, of their . endorsement of the policy of giving our municipalities a ·share of the taxes our Company pays to the government. In other ways, we see a continuing support of our advocacy of forest conservation having made it clear that it will redound not only to their own Page 17 benefit but to the benefit of their children and to those who will follow them. As regards the second proposal, EMPLOY KAINGINEROS IN FOREST \VORK SO THEY CAN EARN A LIVING WITHOUT VIOLATING THE LAW - six of our permanent personnel in the nursery are either former kaingineros or marginal landowners (potential ka:ngineros). Studies on silvicultural treatment of logged-over areas show great increase in growth of trees in plots that have been weeded and thinned. On the 2nd remeasurement of the research plots four years after establishment, there was a notable increase on the diameter grov\/th. The diameter growth on the treated plot showed an average of 1.4 centimeter as against 0.47 centimeter in the controlled plot. The Bureau of Forestry has set aside some 500 hectares consisting of virgin and second-growth forest in a comer of our area reached by our railroad where to conduct studies on logging technique and in the care of second-growth forest. This is a project proposed by the Philippine Association for Permanent Forests in line with the Association's purpose of coordinating government and private efforts in promoting forest conservation. The program of management for this experimental forest is now under preparation and it \1 vill be ready for carrying out by April or May of this year. We are awaiting further results of the sh1dies now being made and if such results show that it will pay to cultivate our forest, Aras-asan Timber Company is prepared to embark in big scale work of promoting natural regeneration and in replanting denuded areas. Another silvicultural treatment we have planned to experiment with is fertilizing. Results obtained in isolated cases show it will pay to fertilize forest trees. In Japan they are carrying on extensive trials with fertilizer. In this work we shall employ many kaingineros and marginal farmers. Page 18 In relation to the third proposal, ENTER INTO COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT WITH KAINGINEROS AND OTHERS TO PLANT FOREST TREES OF ECONOMIC VALUE, ESPECIALLY FAST GROWING SPECIES LIKE ALBllZIA FALCATA - we must say that not much success has been attained. Indeed, we have hardly started, for while a number have signed the cooperative agreement none has carried out his end of the agreement, but we are not giving up the idea because we are confident that if we can show that falcata can give a handsome return in a short time many will plant this species. The Company has planted 70,000 Honduras Mahogany and 52,000 Albizzia falcata. Other species have been planted but in experimental numbers. It will take from 30 to 40 years for mahogany to reach marketable size, but falcata can probably be marketed as matchwood in five to six years. We are pinning our hope on this. Trials made with falcata wood for matchstick are satisfactory. Match factories require the logs to be 12 inches in diameter and 12 feet long. Of falcata planted in November 1961 (2 years and 3 months ago) we expect to get a few thousand board feet from logs that will met specifications of match factories a year from now or from trees that will be only a little more than three years old. If falcata three to five years old will bring a price that will leave an attractive margin of profit to those who will do the logging, then there is great hope that hundreds can be employed gainfully and more hundreds who own marginal land or have access to denuded forests can be induced to plant this species and abandon or never engage in destructive kaingin farming. In my conversation with some people who own barren hills on which they have been trying vainly to grow coconuts, I have been able to convince them, that is, they would agree with me, that planting Albizzia f ale at a FORESTRY LEAVES would give them quicker and bigger return. But in the last analysis they will have to be shown actual figures. Our plan is to pile the falcata logs on the wharf days before loading and invite people to vie\'.,them and s:!:iown them the purchase order from the buyer. THE FUTURE We view the future with optimism. While we must, of course, enforce the laws prohibiting kaingin making, our experience over the years confirms our opi· nion that we must look for other ways and means to curb kaingin farming. Violations have not decreased. On the other hand, the moment logging operations begin, kaingineros leave their kaingin or desist from burning new areas. As a rule, if not invariably, people who make kaingin are those who have to supplement their inadequate income due to lack of land to farm, or because of primitive and unproductive methods of farming, or to unavailability of paying jobs. A study of our undeveloped rural areas reveals that our mral population does not progress because of their low income. Work animals, not to speak of machinery, are short; transportation is inadequate and costly, even when available; consumer goods come in measured quantities and at high price; sanitation is poor and medical facilities are often not within reach; storing, processing and marketing of farm produce are in the hands of unscrupulous merchants who control trade; credit, as it is understood. is not available and loans can only be obtained at exorbitant rates of interest. Under such conditions, how can our rural areas be expected to progress? Lumber companies are changing all these. Jobs are being provided and communities are being developed and improved. However, it is not enough that we develop industrial communities, efforts FORESTRY DAY ISSUE should be exerted to spread our influence to the agricultural areas, for it is only by helping the farmer and kainginefo class to prosper that we can hope for . the final solution to our kaingin problem. To quote from my pamphlet, "A New Approach to the Kaingin Problem" - "'When we can remedy these major economic ills, we shall have created a state of general prosperity that will be shared by all elements with a greater degree of equity. Then there shall be no more kaingin problem, for . . . The forest will provide adequate income for all the people engaged in its multifarious activities. Those who now destroy the trees will find it will be far more profitable to conserve them. Job opportunities on farms and in factories and in commerce and transportation will be ever so much more remunerative than haphazard kaingin farming. The Kainginero will have become a respected citizen of the Nation. living within the law, providing his family with the benefit of education, health and steady constructive employment." ONLY TODAY IS YOURS The day is yours to use or waste, Then spend it not in useless haste, But stop and think, and meditate, Some friend to serve-why hesitate? Live and love each single day, And cease to think of yesterday. Learn to love, then learn to live, For all u·e have is what we give. The day is yours to win or lose, For He that gave it can not choose. The title rose that buds today, May bloom for you when far away. -W. A. ROPER Page 19 WATERSHED ... (Continued from page 8) properly placed culverts, supplemented by sowing and seeding is needed where natural recovery is not expected. I. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY OF THE AMBUKLAO WATERSHED: A paper entitled, "Summary Report on Ambuklao \\latershed Reconnaissance Survey" is attached. This report deals with the objectives of the survey, brief analysis of hydrology and sedimentation. and suggested measures and recommendations to solve watershed problems. LITERATURE CITED 1. Ambuklao Watershed Reconnaisance Survey Report, Bureau of Forestry. 1964 (Unpublished) 2. Bedard, P. W., 1952-1957. Development in Philippine Forestry. Published by USOM. 3. Daza, G. W. 1962. Reforestation Project in Agno River Watershed. (UnpubDEVELOPMENT . . . (Continued from page 16) Francois, T. 1950 Forest policy law, and administration. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. F AO Forestry and Forest Products Studies No. 2, 211 pp. Gill, Tom 1951 Land hunger in Mexico. Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Foundation, Washington, 86 pp. Gill, Tom 1959 Forestry proposals for the Philippines. Report to International Cooperation Administration and National Economic Council, Mimeo, 36 pp. Lee, Y. L. 1961 Some aspects of shifting cultivation in British Borneo. Malayan Forester XXIV Page 20 lished) 4. Gulcur, M. Y. 1964. Effect of Kaingining on Water Yield. An Article presented for National Kaingin Conference (Unpublished ) . 5. Gulcur, M. Y. 1964. Watershed Management Speech delivered in the Staff Meeting of the United Nations. (Unpublished) 6. Kittredge, T ., 1948. Forest Influences McGraw-Hill Book Company. 7. Meimban, .Tr., J. R. 1964. Progress Report on Watershed Management in the Philippines. Paper presented for AsiaPacific Forestry Commission, Working Party on \Vatershed Management (Unpublished) 8. Nablo, S. U. 1963. On the Spot Training in Watershed Management in Taiwan (Unpublished) 9. Report on the Development of Power in the Agno River in Luzon at the Ambuklao Site. 1951. National Power Corporation, Manila, Philippines. 10. Watershed Management. 1962. Published by Food and Agriculture Organization. (2): 102-109. Nye, P. H. and D. Y. Greenland 1960 The soil under shifting cultivation. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England Technical Communication 51, 156 pp. Phillips, John 1961 The development of agriculture and forestry in the tropics. Faber & Faber, London, 212 p. de Schlippe, Pierre 1956 Shifting cultivation in Africa, the Zande system of agriculture. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 304 pp. Tamesis, Florencio 1960 Problems of shifting agriculture in the Asian area. Proceedings of the Fifth World Forestry Congress, Seattle, Wash., pp. 20252002. FORESTRY LEAVES The Mahogan;.· Groi:e - Forestry Campus GENERAL MANAGERS: A. SORIANO Y CIA. Soriano Building, Paseo de Roxas, Makoti, Rizal MEMBER- PHILIPPINE LUMBER PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION Tl"' llakilina Literarv Club mul Staff :llembers of the Forestn Leaws and Forestn· Leaflets. ( L-to-R -Jro11t rowl. R. lfomero, S. Ancheta, A. Pintor, D .. Har/ii, Prof. ]. B. Blando. Adviser: F. :llabmwa. President. L. ]. Guill••rmo, B. Re,-es. D. Ga·inpin. Back row - F. Najera, C. Tosco, C. Diaz, E. Principe. ]. Ca11011izado, Q. Tan, H. Sambaion, E. Valera, F. ,lfacaranas, ll. Mnchacon and R. Cosico (Editor, Leaflets), A. Duldulao, Editor of the F. Leaves (not pictured). Compliments of C. ALCANTARA & SONS, INC. C. ALCANTARA Concessionaire Lamang, Davao City Compliments of AFABLE LOGGING ENTERPRISES Bantakan, Compostela, Davao Compliments of MOHAMAD HADJI CASILIM Tagmr. Davao The 1nost symbolic and colorjul Jloat at this year's Loyalty Day Parade. Re-Orientation Of The Philippine By NICOLAS P. LANSIGAN Wood-Using Industry· In between being alternately condemned and praised, accused and defended, sometimes maligned and lauded all in the same breath, the Philippine wood-using industries have somehow burgeoned into one of the largest fields of economic activity in the country today. Last year, to the surprise of many, wood products brought in $167.6 million in foreign exchange, displacing sugar as the second largest export product ( $151.6 million) of the Philippines, and now topped only by coconut and coconut products ($244.7 million). Picture af the industry:-Just for size, the industry works on, and has for a base, our forests which constitute the largest natural resource of our country. In w0od alone, this resource contains 382 billion board feet of timber with a conservative market value of P'30 billion (repeat P'30 billion), a full twenty times the entire assets of the Philippine National Bank. In 1963 the industry had an aggregate capitalization of P'270 million, produced P530 million worth of wood products, employed 170,000 persons, and earned P27 million for the Government in direct forest taxes alone. The rise of the industry has been as rugged as the mountain terrain the lumbermen work with. Sometimes pulled backward or jerked forward, or forced 0 Editor's note: This article was written when Central . Bank Circular 182 threw the Philippine lumber mdusby in a panic. The situation created points to the need for a stable government forest development. policy and implementary regulations not subjected to frequent changes. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE President, Society of Filipino Foresters any which way by a government policy of decisive indecision, the industry has somehow found itself where it is todayan industrial giant raring to go forward but uncertain what direction to take. Despite its size which should make for strength and stability, it has not succeeded giving itself and its business real permanence and stability. Somehow it has found itself in that queer positon where it scares easily with every ill-wind that comes from Tokyo and where it jitters with every untoward pronouncement or regulation from the government. Surprisingly so, no industry today is as plagued of uncertainties as the wood-using sector. Most of the lumbermen hold nothing more than annual licenses over their all-important forest concessions which need to be renewed every year and whose renewals cannot be taken for granted, exportation of logs on which it thrives could be restricted or banned any moment, a nev .. · government regulation could come out of the blue to upset logging schedules or market commitments, onerous fees could be slapped just like that, kaifigineros and squatters nibble the forest holding from all sides with no relief in sight, the forest concession itself can evaporate into thin air when there is enough pressure to declare it agricultural land, onerous and unilateral government regulations can dismay the faint of heart, et cetera. What's worst, the license a lumberman holds over his area could be cancelled anytime for any one of many causes. And the causes are so numerous, could be very Page 21 subjective in evaluation that lumbermen are much concerned when there is a change in administration, when a new secretary of agriculture comes in, or when a new director of forestry takes over. Thus, it is that the industry muddled along in gusts of booms and boomlets in sturdy confusion. Confounding the confusion is the unusually large swarm of flyby-night operators and get-rich-quick speculators whose practices have given the industry whatever black public image it has and whose activities have put the safety of the forests and the forest economy in serious jeopardy. Log export oriented industry: -Laboring under such an atmosphere, the industry could not be expected to grow into the orderly pattern the government planners wistfully had in mind. And whatever fine opportunity the policy makers had to effect a more orderly development passed away with the onset of decontrols. Before decontrol, it was possible through an effective use of credit and foreign exchange priorities, to direct development to desirable channels. The government was then in a position to pour financial assistance to this or that wood processing industry it wanted to favor or withhold the Indusby Logging Sawmilling Plywood Veneer Lawanit Total Capital Investment ( Million pesos) 86.6 72.2 65.0 35.0 12.0 270.8 Industry in a ferment:-Most lumbermen realize that confining themselves to logging and to shipping out their logs is basically disadvantageous both to themselves and to the general economy. They appreciate that wood processing is more Page 22 same from the purely exporting ventures, etc. But the government as usual muffed its chance and many of the lumbermen plunged into what appeared to be the convenient and profitable thing to do: confine themselves to logging and to exporting the logs. Thus, it was that the industry progressively increased its log shipments to Japan, Taiwan and Korea. It is in pursuit of this log economy that many of our lumbermen over-invested and over-expanded in logging and hauling equipment and are understandably for the indefinite continuance of the log export trade and most worried by any specter of danger to this trade. Of course, the more far-sighted lumbermen have much earlier gone beyond logging operations and put up sawmills, veneer or plywood plants. Some of them still export some logs but they are fairly well established in the wood processing business and would be in a better position to weather any setback in the log export trade. An overall picture of the industry and the extent of investment and production of its major sectors may be seen in the following: Volume of Production (Million) 3.251.3 bd. ft 482.0 bd. ft. 400.3 sq. ft. 738.2 sq. ft. 62.5 sq. ft. Value of Production ( Million pesos) 29'2 106 70 56 5 529 profitable than logging operations alone as the experience of the wood processors indicates. Many therefore are poised to go into processing but understandably, wood processing entails more capital than what is called for in plain logging. And FORESTRY LEAVES capital is the one thing hard to come by nowadays. Thus, except for one or two outfits, they shy away from the capitalintensh·e pulp and paper manufacture. Others have their eyes set on fibre and particle board making which comparatively needs less heavy capital, or in sawmilling or plywood manufacture. Understandably also, many will put off going into processing as long as it is possible to squeeze profits from the log export trade. Or as some lumbermen ha\·e already done, they process part of their log output and export what they cannot use. Maybe it is better this way. To be realistic about it, the industry would be far from able to accommodate all the loggers in wood processing. In the first place, there is not enough capital around to get all the machineries and equipment involved. Nor can the market, foreign and local, be built overnight to absorb all the products that would be processed. Foreign market orientation: - Already popular and well within the reach of the more-than-average lumbermen, or a pool of small lumbermen, is the field of plywood, veneer and lumber making. In this the would-be lumber and plywood makers should do well to set their sights more to the foreign market than the local market. It is obvious that the latter cannot be expanded too far, in fact, it is fairly saturated. On the other hand, the foreign market has wide prospects. Our lauan lumber and plywood have built up a prestige and a demand abroad and considering that only a portion of this demand is being supplied from the Philippines, there is a sizeable market to look forward to. In 1963, the American market alone, for instance, had to be supplied 75.3 million board feet of lauan lumber and 1,212.4 million square feet of plywood. Only 40 per cent of the former and 20 per cent of the latter came from the Philippines. J a pan, Taiwan and Korea which get most of their raw log materials from us supplied the larger bulk. An idea of the potentials for the Philippines of the American market may be seen from the following: Import of Lauan Lumber and Plywood Into United States in 1963 Showing Country of Origin and Share of Each Country of Origin Lumber (Mil. bd. ft.) Importation Plywood Importation Per Cent Share Volume Per Cent Share Volume Philippines 30.2 Japan 32.3 Taiwan 8.8 Korea & others 4.0 Total 75.3 Of course, entering the foreign market field calls for the ability to market products competitive in price and quality with those coming from other countries. And to put up such products in turn, entails efficient equipment and labor, low FORESTRY DAY ISSUE ( Mil. bd. ft.) 40 245.2 20 43 484.3 40 12 272.4 23 5 210.5 17 100 1,212.4 100 cost of production, managerial skill, etc. And be it said that we have not fared too badly abroad. In 1963 we exported PSS.6 million worth of plywood, P24.5 million of veneer, and Pl6.8 million of lumber. Our lumber, plywood and veneer Page 23 are holding their own and there is every reason that other processors could be as successful as those now in this field. But more than just going with the herd is needed. Take the case of making lumber. It is not now a case of putting up any kind of sawmill. Presently, there are over 400 sawmills in the Philippines. Many have stopped operations, most are running at half capacity. And hardly a dozen can cater to the foreign trade. The rest are small crude inefficient mills turning out products passable for local consumption but not good enough for the foreign market. There is enough supply for the local market, so that prospective sawmillers have to plan for the export trade. This would call for modern efficient mills and, perhaps, accessory finishing plants. The same would hold for the plywood trade. The local market is limited but the American, European and Asiatic markets have vast potentials. There is no reason why the Philippines could not cut a better figure in the international trade, starting with plywood and lumber. Perhaps it is here in our foreign trade where incentives would be meaningful. Tax exemptions and liberal credit facilities to wood processing-even subsidy to exports of processed productswould be wellplaced. In fact, these would even hasten more of our log operators to go into wood processing. Orientation tm.vards integration: -A most logical next step-preferably, a simultaneous step-would be orientation of the industry towards integration. In wood manufacture, no matter how efficient the equipment and how skilled the operations might be there are the inevitable wood wastes arid residues For instance, in making lumber, plywood and veneer almost fifty per cent of the raw log is left in the form of wastes and residues. These certainly should find better use than being consigned for fuel or left to rot. Page 24 It is in this concept that some of the more advanced wood processors have gone into integrated set-ups. Exemples: the Philippine Wallboard Corporation now salvages its sawmill wastes and converts these in its Nasipit plant into wallboard "lawanit"; the Timber Export Company in Zamboanga now manufactures and markets a particle board product. Soon entering the picture is the industrial complex that the Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines is putting up in Bislig, Surigao del Sur. Its ~230 million pulp and paper plant with a capacity of 400 tons a day will produce containerboard, and enough newsprint to cut off the Philippine dependence on foreign sources for this basic item. For raw materials, the plant will utilize the primary forest wastes and the residues of sawmilling and veneer making operations. For the small processors there are many promising fields. The Forest Products Research Institute at Los Banos is doing wonderful studies on new and diversified uses of wood which prospective investors could translate into business ventures. The fields of wood containers and crates, toys, shingles, cooperage, cleated plywood boxes, tool handles, and even charcoal briquettes await pioneer investors. The chemical conversion of wood into cellulose and to derived products as well as the carbonization and distillation of wood have not even been scratched. These, however, entail considerably research and venture capital and may have to wait. But there is ample room in what we now know for the would-be wood processors of imagination. Urgency of stability af policy:-While the Philippines has embarked on a free enterprise economy and the least restraint on the development of any industry is a natural consequence, the government nevertheless has seen to it-and must see to itthat the basic safeguards are not over( Continued on page 30) FORESTRY LEAVES - - - - - - - - - - tE:be @berseas Jjank of :$Manila ZAMBOANGA CITY BRANCH (In front Plaza Pershing. Zamboanga City) OPENING SOON to serve the PUBLIC especially WGGERS and BUSINESS.YEN LANAO EXPORT CORPORATION Manila Address: P.O. Box 2491 Manila, P.I. TOMINOBO, ILIGAN CITY PHILIPPINES Cable Address: "LANAO EXPORT" Iligan City J Compliments of GUERRA ENTERPR~ES CO., INC. Cnncrssionaire & Exporters Philippine Mahogany Logs Mala bang Lanao del Sur Compliments of ZAMBOANGA UNIVERSAL ENTERPRISES SAWMILL OPERATOR P.O. Box No. 152 Zamboanga City Compliments of Tel. No. 1961 BORJA & POBLETE ENTERPRISES, INC. Logging Area at Malitbog, Bukidnon LOG EXPORTERS Office Address: Jasaan, Misamis Oriental Compliments of KIWALAN LUMBER COMPANY, INC. Producers and Manufacturers Domestic Lumber 0 Veneer Fletches 0 Export Logs Concession Momongan, Lanao Yard & Planning Mill Kamague, Iligan City Cable Address: KIL UM CO Iligan City Tel. No. - 177 TIMBER EXPORTS, INC. LOG, PLYWOOD, PARTICLE BOARD PRODUCERS & EXPORTERS TIMEX Manila Office : 419 Bank of P.I. Bldg. Plaza Cervantes, Manila Tel. 4-34-92 Cable Address: TIMEX P.O. Box 21 Zamboanga City, P.I. Tel. 1221 Timber Concessions: lpil, Zamboanga del Sur Tawi-Tawi, Sulu Archipelago, Samar Veneers & Plywood Plants: Baliwasan, Zamboanga City Recodo, Zamboanga City Tacloban, Leyte Cainta, Rizal rompliments of PEDRO N. ROA ENTERPRISES, INC. Logging Area at Talakag, Bukidnon LOG EXPORTERS Office Address: Cagayan de Oro City Research On Kaingin And Needs I For Research Head, By TIMOTEO S. OliCION Department of Anthropology Silliman University Dumaguete City I. Introduction Last December 10, 1963, a consultative group of the University of the Philippines College of Forestry and the Bureau of Forestry arrived at Silliman University to sh1dy certain aspects of kaingin problems in Negro~ Oriental in connection with the projected kaingin conference set tentatively for March 12 and 13, 1964 in Manila. During the visit of this group, four major aims of the conference were discussed. They are found in our program. The real wealth of any nation is its people. For a country like the Philippines in which the natural resources necessary for the development of a highly industrialized society are meager the wealth lies even more so in its citizens. While future progress will bring increased industrialization, the real basis for an enduring and progressive Republic lies not in its industries, but in its land and its farmers. But land per se is not wealth. It is the people who farm the land and reap its promise of wealth. Furthermore, the efficiency, intelligence, skillfulness, and imagination of the people who farm the land of the Philippines depend largely upon their education. It is common knowledge that a very high percentage of our forests have been carelessly cut and this presents a problem of great concern to the Filipinos and is recognized by the government as one of fundamental importance. On April 12, 1961, the FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Manila Daily Bulletin released the following news report: "Philippine forests are being depleted faster than any other in the world. Forest resources a.re in danger of liquidation. If indiscriminate destruction of timber continues, the nation stands to lose not only its valuable forests but also innumerable lives and property." It is clear that the nation's program of reforestation demands tha.t greater attention be given to conservation. The forests of our nation cannot be adequately developed without the prior or concurrent preparation of its human population. It is felt that the present time is most advantageous for proposing the extension of adult educa.tion program geared primarily at forest conservation of our remaining forest lands among the primitive groups of the Republic of the Philippines. The increasing awareness of the urgency of more forest conservation activity and the concern of more agencies to help solve this serious problem should be taken advantage of. II. Prevention of Shifting Cultivation No program of reforestation or forest conservation can be successfully pursued without an understanding of the culture of the people for whom the program is proposed. This report is confined only to the mountain peoples of Southern Negros Oriental popularly called Bukidnons. Food is life. In parts of the Republic, in regard to diet, some Filipinos have abundance of food. The Bukidnons of South Page 25 Negros barely exist. No program of conservation or reforestation will hold real purpose and meaning to the people unless their bellies are full. For example, many people have written with much misinformation on the evils of the kaingin system of agriculture. The actual facts are, as clearly explained by such an eminent scholar of Philippine agriculture as Karl J. Pelzer, that: "Shifting cultivation from the agricultural point of view is not considered objectionable so long as vegetation and the fertility of the soil are restored by nature. The opinion of those who regard it as a fatal agricultural system under all circumstances is widely felt to be unjustified. From the silvicultural point of view, shifting cultivation is held to be objectionable if it destroys timber that would otherwise be exploited by the forest service or by private concessionaires." A more intelligent and conserving application of the kaingin system by the Bukidnons of Southern Negros which is not the case today, must be taught to these people. Any reforestation program must take advantage of basic anthropological knowledge. Anthropologists know that it is much easier to teach primitive people better ways of practicing old cultural patterns than trying to superimpose a complete new set of cultural activities - an attempt, which in the past, has led many primitive peoples into social disorganization and moral deterioration. The activities of reforestation. therefore. must always be directed toward objectives which are financially and administratively practical, agriculturally suitable, and anthropologically sensitive. In other words. the activities and objectives of reforestation among the Bukidnons must be heavily influenced bv that rare commodity so inaccurately called common sense. For example, Bowers2 said that over vast regions of the globe, human communities are living at a bare subsistence level Page 26 -underhoused, underfed, and underclothed, their vitality sapped by disease. Their agriculture - if such it can be called - consists of shifting agriculture with the land hoe or the wooden plow. These untold acres of potentially productive land might well alleviate, by a surplus production, the world food shortage. A story is told by Antonio Arango who lived in the Andean Cordillera in South America who saw the tragedy of the vanishing soil of his farm without understanding it. He purchased twenty hectares of land covered with tall timbers. With his machete and axe he cleared the land with the help of his three sons. He burned the cut timber. Other settlers in the mountains did the same. Then he planted maize. On two hectares he sowed forage for the cow. The first harvest was good. He was pleased, so he went on planting maize but things had changed. In the rainy season it was a yellow flood tearing the mud and rocks. His harvests were growing smaller. He sold his cow because there was no more grass for it. Rocks took the place of his once fertile land. There was no money in the house. The children had nothing to eat. The place became a desert. Like other settlers Antonio sought another woodland to begin again. If only someone had taught Antonio to plow according to the contour of the slope, to terrace the steepest part of the slope, to cicatrize the scars of erosion with simple dams of logs and stones. If only someone had taught Antonio that maize is not the right crop for sloping ground and that other better paying crops can be rotated instead. If only someone had taught him to sow the ground between the furrows with suitable bushes to check the movement of the soil. In bringing life to sick regions Opper has suggested that the agronomist must take care of the soil, what grows on it FORESTRY LEAVES and the domestic animals it supports. He must make plans for soil conservation, reforestation, irrigation, the improvement of farming methods, and animal husbandry. He works by demonstration rather than by homily. Peasants are the same throughout the world, cautious, wedded to customs and suspicious to innovations; but a healthy crop growing on a terraced hillside speaks louder than words. Patience, sincerity, and a passion for service can work miracles in places where nothing short of miracles will do. In the upper Tayabanan river valley where I have done intensive anthropological researches, I have endeavored to help landless families both pagans and Christians who have been using the kaingin system of agriculture. The Bukidnons make clearings every other year. When the soil is already exhausted of its fertility, they move to other areas and make new kaingins. This is no longer the case today in this research area. Their present kaingins with areas ranging from two to five hectares are being declared for taxation purposes. Since 1956 up to the present, the records of the Provincial Assessor in Dumaguete City would show the number of these families I have helped. I have a purpose for this. 1. Tax declaration does not mean ownership of lands. Their rights are simply usufructuary. But the possession of such document makes them feel secure. Since this experiment was made, the Bukidnons no longer move from place to place. They have stayed permanently in these areas and are planting more permanent crops in addition to upland rice, corn, root crops and vegetables. Where no taxes were paid before, they are now paying and are participating in the socio-economic program of our growing Republic. They are producing more food in order to have surplus to sell so that they can pay their taxes and buy some extra things needed by them in their respective households. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE 2. By developing their own kaingins, the destruction of new timber lands in this research area has been at a standstill. The system of tax declaration which I have experimented has practically eliminated the yearly movement of this group to look for new kaingin sites. I have reasons to believe that there is no necessity of rigidly implementing the provisions of R. A. 3701. Our different government agencies can spread out into these areas and make contacts with the group of landless now squatting in our interior mountains and explain to them the evils of the kaingin system of agriculture. III. General Observation in the Field After our conference last December 10, 1963 with the team that came to see us, I went to the upper Tayabanan river valley, Bayawan, Southern N egros Oriental on December 22 and stayed there until January 1, 1964. I am therefore making these reports as observed on the spot. I was reliably informed that there is a plan of the lumber concessioner to cut all the remaining timbers found along the steep hillsides of the upper Tayabanan river in Bayawan, Negros Oriental. These remaining timbers are good watersheds where there are still available springs and creeks. Should this happen and not stopped by our forestry agents, I have reasons to believe that when the heavy rains begin to fall during the Southwest monsoon in July up to October, heavy floods would come, that would endanger the life and property of the people in the lower valley numbering several hundreds. There is also the danger of people being deprived of drinking water. In fact there is already a shortage of drinking water in some areas along the Tayabanan river valley because of the removal of the timbers formerly serving as watersheds. In some older maps one can still see marked for Southern Negros "unexplored forest." This is no longer the situation today. Many Christian settlers from Cebu, Page 27 Siquijor, Panay, Negros Occidental and some northern town of Negros Oriental are flocking into the Southern portion of Negros together with all their families in areas supposed to be under a lumber concessioner. A forest guard told one family to look for another place because he wa~ squatting over an area duly licensed. When I interviewed the reaction of the head of the family, this is what he told me: "I will not move. I will stay. Where will I go? What will my family eat? If they put me to jail, I will serve the sentence. This is better than stealing, anyway." These families are aware of the "land for the landless program" of the government. For example, Section I of Republic Act No. 1160 which took effect last June 18, 1954 states: "It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress to help speed up free distribution of agricultural lands of the public domain to landless tenants and farm workers who are citizens of the Philippines and to encourage migrations to sparsely populated regions pursuant to the fundamental policy of the government to promote the level of production, employment and living standards of the people." A question can be raised at this point. What shall we do with the landless who have to support a big family and are exposed to disease, hunger and the fear of being arrested anytime, who are now squatting over our forest zones? If lands being squatted by the settlers do not have timbers or are already left by the concessioners for lack of commercial timbers to cut, can we not give these squatters the first opportunity to own the land? If the land squatted are cogonal and settlers are now presently occupying them, shall we not give this land to them? To me, I believe that peace is not the absence of war. Peace is the presence of social justice. The Bureau of Forestry, the Bureau of Lands, and the Bureau of Agricultural Extension and other government agencies inPage 28 terested in our landless population should send representatives to these areas and decide once and for all the early release of lands now squatted. Forest lands now left by lumber concessioners without commercial timbers should be released immediately and the present squatters given ownership to the areas they are occupying. The implementation of Republic Act No. 3701 by our Bureau of Forestry personnel which took effect on June 22, 1963 has further disorganized the settlers in Bayawan Municipality, Southern Negros Oriental. Settlers have been warned to stay away from the public forest or forest lands or suffer arrest. Mayor Telesforo A. Diao of Bayawan upon representation in behalf of the occupants wrote a letter to the President of the Philippines last December 20. This letter was hand carried by the Mayor himself and handed to the President personally on Common Man's Day. The President immediately acted upon it thru his Executive Secretary as follows: 1st Indorsement Manila. December 20, 1963 Respectfully referred to the Director of Forestry, Manila, for appropriate action on the within letter of Municipal Mayor Telesforo A. Diao of Ba ya wan, N egros Oriental, requesting the immediate release of a certain tract of forest land in that locality for disposition and alienation under the Public Land Law in favor of more than 1000 farmers-occupants thereof. Mayor Diao made these urgent representations in behalf of the occupants because they are being allegedly evicted by the Office of the District Forestry in said province. The attached letter was personally submitted by Mayor Diao to the President today (Common Man's Day). Advice of the action taken hereon to Mayor Diao and this office for the information of the President will be appreciated. For the Executive Secretary: ( Sgd.) Froilan R. Montalban Acting Cabinet Secretary FORESTRY LEAVES A portion of Republic Act 3701 which amends Sec. 2751 of the Revised Administrative Code states as follows: "Without the written permission of the Director of Forestry or his duly authorized representative, it shall be unlawful for any person willfully to enter upon any public forest, proclaimed timberland, commercial forest, commercial pasture, and forest reserve and occupy the same, or to make "Kaingin" therein or in any manner destroy such or part thereof, or to cause any damage to the timber stand and other forest products and forest growth found therein, or to assist, and/ or abet any other person negligently to permit a fire which has been set upon his own premises to be communicated, with destructive result~, to any of the public forests hereinabove described." The penal provisions are enumerated under subsections "a'', "b' and "c" which do not need to be cited. IV. Lumber Smuggling There is a great demand for lumber in almost all areas of the Philippines. One common source of income is to illegally cut timber from the forest area and sell the same in the black market. The logs after being spliced to their desired lengths are loaded in barotos, sailboats, or bancas and brought to areas away from forest agents. Sometimes these smugglers are apprehended but in most cases they are able to escape arrest, because of lack of personnel and funds. To help minimize the smuggling of our first group timbers, I off er the following suggestions: . 1. Deputize all Barrio Councils to check on lumber being transported from the mountains to determine whether lumber ferried is covered by gratuitous permit or by license. If they cannot produce such, lumber smuggled should be impounded and smugglers held liable under existing laws. 2. If lumber is carried on buses, drivers or conductors should be given instructions only to load lumber covered by invoices from the municipal treasurers or from the local bureau of forestry. Police check points FORESTRY DAY ISSUE should be alert in stopping buses or cargo trucks having such a load. 3. The PACD workers could expand their work by covering mountain areas and help in the government's drive against illegal cutting of our timber resources. V. Conclusion There is an urgent need of citizenship training in a form of seminar by persons in our government and private sectors of the Bukidnons and other mountain settlers to love, honor and assist their government. This is an exceedingly difficult proposal to achieve. It is going to be trying to teach these people citizenship responsibilities when the government of which they are a part is doing so little for them. There is a need for a coordinated work of all our government bureaus and private agencies in putting into action the problems of kaingin and reforestation. A slow start and with limited, well-define objectives in the field of reforestation could help. This would require more funds. The Directors of both the Bureau of Forestry and Lands pleaded for more funds to employ extra personnel to implement our forest and land laws. The funds given were very insignificant. As a result of lack of funds, there followed lack of interest, lack of trained personnel, and unimpressive accomplishments in refon~stations. The road toward reforestation program in the Philippines has been lavishly paved with legislative rulings, executive orders, provincial circulars, and municipal regulations - but only a few have trod the path. The Anthropologist, because of the very nature of his science, has long been aware of the problems of kaiingin, especially among primitive peoples. I believe that the solution to the kaingin problem although stupendously difficult could be done. Personnel employed to check on the illegal cutting of our timbers get better results by establishing themselves in a definite area, small enough to be covered for several months and long enough for their supervision to bear visible results. This Page 29 would require the active interest and cooperation of the community or communities adjacent to the areas where kaingin is rampant. It is best to use people who are local inhabitants of the areas in the enforcement of our forest laws because they will be familiar with the place and the inhabitants. Paul Zehngraff, world-renowned forest authority who was iP. the Philippines some years ago as LC.A. (now A.LO.) forestry advisor said: "With adequate protection, intensified management, and very much improved utilization of all that they produce the potentialities of the remaining forests, in terms of production, industry, and employment are practically unlimited. It is for these reasons that it has been felt - and is felt to an increasing degree - that assistance to forestry is a sound investment. Given such support, the remaining forests, and those that must be created, will serve the future Fipino generations as well as they do now." Karl J. Pelzer suggests the following procedures to minimize the wanton cutting RE-ORIENTATION ... (Continued from page 24) looked in the case of the exploitation of our forest resources. It is to be admitted that the forests have roles beyond merely giving us wood for our use and for export, that they have much to do with waterflow regulation, soil erosion prevention and other beneficial services associated with forests. It is for this reason that the wood-using industry labors under so many regulations. Free enterprise and regulated utilization of the forests somehow must go hand in hand. But what stands out as sadly absent is a definitive policy for the development of the industry and a set of implementary rules that have some semblance of permanency. The government must make up its mind about the industry, point it to the desired course, put up whatever Page 30 of our timbers: " ... To remove the population from mountainous land to plains and valley floors. To have the shifting cultivator plant permanent tree crops to protect the soil against accelerated erosion. Steep slopes which now produce but a single moderate rice crop every few years could be made more productive if planted with perennials. The cultivator could then buy his staple food with the money obtained from the sale of crops harvested from trees." We need to put in funds and efforts to demonstrate to the shifting cultivators the wisdom and economic advantages of settled agriculture. The Bukidnons are not dumb; they can learn from a demonstration right in their midst. It is costly in money to the government, and to the Bukidnons it is inhuman to put them in jail for the offense of making kaingin. But it is cheaper to educate them in the better ways of settled farming. If the government believes in educating the Bukidnons instead of threatening them with punishments, my humble services shall be available if needed. restrictive regulations might be necessary, etc. But after this is done, the policy and the rules should be given some stability. The wood-using industry. by its very' nature calls for long range planning and any policy that could be readily 1erked right or left, regulations or administrative procedures that could change with changes in officialdom can prove very trying to the lumbermen and stifling to their business. It is this uncertainty, in a way, that discourages many lumbermen from going the full way in wood processing, froni being serious with following the sustained yield management . principle, from going into establishing plantations of timber crops that would take ten to eighty years to grow. The sooner the government works out a clear-cut policy and a set of wellthought out rules, the better would it be for the industry and to the national interests. FORESTRY LEAVES Summary Report On Ambuklao Watershed Reconnaissance Survey • In By J. R. MEIMBAN, JR. Senior Research Forester Charge, Forest Protection. and Watershed Division A reconnaissance survey was recently conducted in Ambuklao watershed by the Bureau of Forestry with the cooperation of other government agencies consequent to the recommendations of a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Watershed Management Expert, Mr. Macid Y. Gulcur. The purposes of the survey were to determine the ways and means to prevent siltation of the reservoir, to increase water yield for hydroelectric power, to obtain maximum control and utilization of runoff for hydroelectric power, to obtain maximum control and utilization of runoff water, and to suggest the measures for rehabilitating, improving, and developing the watersheds. This report presents some hydrologic data and analysis of the watershed conditions in Ambuklao which have not previously been made available. The serious problems in Ambuklao are soil erosion and accelerated sedimentation of the reservoir which are mainly caused by kaingin, repeated burning, road construction, unsound logging operation, illegal cutting, and uncontrolled grazing. These are aggravated by geologic conditions, steep topography, and shallow erodible soils greatly affected by intense rainfall and high runoff characteristics. Of its total drainage area covering 63,200 hectares, 62 percent ( 39,288 hectares} is moderately to severely eroded, and 38 0 Paper presented at the Foresters' Conference on September 2-3, 1964 held at the GSIS SOCIAL HALL, Arroceros, Manila. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE percent ( 23,912 hectares) is slightly or not apparently eroded. The present land-use is distributed as follows: (a) forests, 68.4 percent or 4'3,170 hectares ( b ) grasslands, 14.6 percent or 9,260 hectares ( c) agricultural lands, 14.2 percent or 8,990 hectares, and (d) lake area, 2.8 percent or 1,780 hectares. The land-use problems are quickly reaching a critical stage of development in Ambuklao where the Government invested the total amount of P237,000,000 for the construction of the Ambuklao and Binga hydro~ electric power projects. Because of its poor hydrologic conditions, the watershed produced 7 4 percent surface and sub-surface runoff of the total 114.9 inches or 291.8 ems. rainfall in 19501952, and 26 percent was lost through evapotranspiration or interception within the forest canopy and forest floor. High runoff usually occurs from July to October and is minimum from February to April, each year. During this period, the water level in the reservoir has gone 40 meters below the maximum level almost reaching the critical level, 694 meters being the minimum reservoir level required for hydroelectric power production. The maximum reservoir level is 752 meters. Based on 1952 figures for Ambuklao, the watershed produced 17 ,820 cubic meters of runoff during rainy season (May to October). In contrast, the same watershed produced during the dry season ( N ovember to April) 3,830 cubic meters, or 17.6 percent of the total 21,650 cubic meters of runoff per hectare per year. Page 31 The 1960-1962 measurements in Bokod sub-watershed revealed that one hectare produced 49,650 cubic meters, of which 19 percent (9,530 cubic meters) was dry season discharge. This indicates that in Bokod sub-watershed covering 4,800 hectares of drainage area the total discharge per hectare per year was about 2.3 times more than the average discharge of the entire Ambuklao Watershed, and summer discharge was about 2.4 times more than the total discharge of Ambuklao for the same period. The hydrologic and sedimentation analysis and actual observations indicate that the sources of sedimentation are: (a) about 40 percent come from road banks ( b) 30 percent from gullies, and ( c) 30 percent from sheet erosion. Sediment sampling within the Ambuklao damsite from 1950-1952 showed a yearly average of 2.744 million tons (2.634 million cubic meters), or 41.7 cubic meters of sediment per hectare per year. The sampling was not continued because the sediment station was submerged in the construction of the reservoir. In Bokod, the rate of sedimentation was 3.075 million tons (2.818 million cubic meters), equivalent to 640.1 tons, or 587 .3 cubic meters per hectare per year in 19601962. Based on Bokod measurements, critical sub-watersheds covering 3,050 hectares in Ambuklao will likely produce 2,676,000 cubic meters yearly, or a total of 5.494 million cubic meters annually. Sediment and total streamflow ratio is 0.25 percent on average basis. The Ambuklao dam was calculated in 1952 by the Harza Engineering Company to last 62 years. However, based on the present rate of siltation and sedimentation without implementing watershed improvement measures, it has been estimated to last only 32 years from 1957. On the other hand, cost and benefit analysis show that Page 32 the dam would last 46 years, or a prolongation of its life to 14 more years from 1957, if land treatment and vegetative measures are implemented. The annual loss of fund due to the siltation and sedimentation of the Ambuklao dam amounts to P412,712. In contrast, the net benefit from the whole watershed project to be implemented during the period of 10 years will amount to P493,222 annually. The annual cost/benefit ratio calculated according to the Annuity Tables is 1.5/1, which is economically justifiable covering IO-year period of project implementation. Four works of improvement are proposed to be implemented: (a) Land improvement measures ( b) Structural measures ( c) Forest Management, and ( d) Forestry Education and Extension Service (Public Relations). Land improvement measures will deal primarily with the stabilization of critical areas and forest protection aimed at minimizing or stopping kaingin, illegal cutting, and overgrazing. A Forest Protection Plan was prepared with provision for lookout towers, equipment, and firefighting personnel to detect, control or prevent forest fire damage. Through protection, it is expected that 10,220 hectares of sparsely forestecl areas will be naturally regenerated. It is also expected that surf ace runoff will decrease during rainy season, and streamflow will increase during dry season especially when water is mostly needed for hydropower, irrigation, domestic, and other uses. Critical roadbanks will be stabilized by wattling, retaining walls, ripraps, culverts, and drainage ditches; landslides and active gullies in critical subwatersheds will be treated with vegetative or structural control measures, whichever is practicab1e. Critical open areas where natural pine regeneration cannot be possibly established because of depleted soil conditions will be FORESTRY LEAVES reforested to mm1m1ze the siltation of the reservoir, to increase subsurface flows, and to produce timber for mine props. In Forest Management, the production and improvement of the Benguet Pine forest with the objective of sustained yield management to harmonize with the need for protecting and conserving the watershed values will be undertaken. Research on timber stand improvement and other cultural operations designed to find out plantsoil-water relations is suggested. Logging operations will be regulated where light or moderate cutting is required and road construction will be planned to prevent soil erosion and damage to watershed values. Critical grasslands will be restricted to grazing. Protective measures such as rotation or deferred grazing will be adapted on research basis. Community grazing lands, if available, will be established for the use of herd owners in the community, with 7,400 hectares of pastures land expected to be devoted to grazing project. ·A Forestry education and extension service is planned which will include fundamental educational program to (a) enlighten the rural people and fill in the gaps in the school system, ( b) help the unschooled segment of the population to understand environmental problems in which they live, and ( c) help them acquire knowledge and skills to improve their living conditions and participate more fully in the economic and social development of the community. Under this program, information campaign through community meetings, distribution of leaflets and posters and audiovisual aids will be carried through. The damages caused by floods or dam siltation, with watershed management as a means of preventing such catastrophe \\-ill be presented through the press, radio and, in general, publicity, in cooperation with government and private agencies concerned. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE It is also envisaged to established a Pilot Project on a small-size watershed to study the effect of cutting, to demonstrate to the people the effects of various techniques such as, road construction and maintenance, conservative logging operation, terracing, contour plowing, buildin'g check dams for gully stabilization, etc. watershed improvement measures. This program will be directed to enlist the cooperation of the local population and extension of forestry education to reach all persons whose occupations are directly related to the management of the Ambuklao watershed. Four specific measures were recommended to solve basic watershed problems and to provide a comprehensive framework in orienting the formulation of watershed rehabilitation and development programs for the participation of government agencies and the private sector: (a) Vegetative ( b) Structural ( c) Administrative and ( d) Legislative. (a) Vegetative Measures 1. Encourage the establishment of "Community Forests" for the rural people to sen·e as community meeting ground, an outdoor laboratory for students, a habitat for wildlife, a place for recreation and relaxation, or a demonstration ground for good forestry practices. 2. Establish strips of plantation to serve as brakes for erosion control, to cure sick gullies, rehabilitate roadbanks and improve the hydrologic conditions of highly erodible sites. 3. Follow two methods of developing or retaining soil productivity of the croplands by maintaining a healthy vegetal cover in order to prevent erosion by : a. V sing mechanical means such as terraces, benches, diversion or drainage channels to carry off runoff to natural or artificial outlets. Page 33 b. Practicing manuring or application of commercial fertilizers or to rotate crops in time and space. ( b) Structural Measures 1. Since the construction of engineering works would be more costly to control erosion and sedimentation, watershed management measures should be applied upstream where the problems originate. Measures relating to land-use throughout the watershed with particular consideration on the equilibrum between agriculture forestry and grazing. crop rotation, soil preparation, strip cropping, tc::rracmg and anti-erosion measures should be applied. 2. Construct highways and logging roads with special emphasis on protecting the watershed values. 3. Help secure enough credit to farmers for construction of mechanical measures. ( c) Administrative Measures l. Since it is the function of the Government to protect the public forests from fire, kaingin, etc. destructive forces, the cooperation of the people living on the area should be enlisted thru their community leaders. A forestry extension and cooperative program should be developed and carried through for the region. Participation of licensees should be secured for the ample protection of their license areas from kaingin, fire, etc. 2. Practice a well-balanced management of the watershed with emphasis on protection of the soil and forest cover, maintenance of water flow, sustained production of timber crops, and consideration of all the watershed values. Timber production should be correlated with requirements of desirable soil-cover-water relations. 3. Problems of kaingineros and squatters inside the watersheds should be studied; their resettlement and rehabilitation should be implemented, especially on National Park and critical areas where the practices cause heavy siltation and sedimentation of the reservoir. 4. Protective an<l remedial ;neasures related to watersheds management should be provided in the granting of all kinds of forestry permits. 5. Enforcement of better logging operation for the establishment of natural regeneration and prevention of soil erosion. The follm.ving measures are recommended: a. A strip of vegetation about 100 meters wide should be left uncut along live streams to protect banks, preserve natural conditions, and maintain a clear waterway. Only selected trees should be carefully removed. b. Lighter cuts should be made on steep slopes with loose erodible soils, and heavier cuts on gentle terrain with erosion-resistant soils in relation to local soil, slope, and rainfall conditions. c. Trees should be felled away from live or dry drainage channels in order to keep slash out of waterways. d. Trees should be felled toward skid roads and cableways to limit the haul distance and to minimize soil disturbance. e. Landing should be located on dry and firm ground to minimize watershed damage. Upon abandonment, all landings should be erosion-proofed by adequate ditching or mulching with forest litter as needed to prevent erosion. f. All timber should be limbed before yarding to minimize the damage to reproduction and soil disturbance incurred thm movement. g. Downhill yarding, which causes accumulation of water and concentration of runoff, should be avoided. h. The skyline system of logging is recommended on the area to minimize soil erosion especially on steep slopes. i. Stabilize fresh road banks by wattle, tree and grass-planting. (Continued on page 40) FORESTRY LEA VF.S Timber Ultilization Study Of Mindanao Logging Operations By BERNARDO C. AGALOOS The extensive forest inventory being conducted by the Bureau of Forestry is based primarily upon the interpretation of aerial photos and the measurement of forest sample plots on the ground. Other related studies are made howe\"er, to obtain special information required in a comprehensive forest resources inventory. One of these is the timber utilization study made on a sample of active logging operations. The main objective of this study is to determine the extent of actual timber use as compared to the merchantability standards recognized in the forest inventory. A specially-trained field crew spent four months collecting tree measurements from pre-selected sample areas throughout Mindanao. These measurements were computed and interpreted later in the inventory headquarters. Sampling Design A sample of 30 cutting operafons distributed all ·over Mindanao was selected at random from a list of logging concessions. Before the selection, the concessions were classified according to the size of their operation within a province, based on their total annual allowable cuts. Provinces with small total production (total annual allowable cut) were combined with other adjoining provinces, so that all forest concessions had a chance to be selected as a sample. Alternate samples were preselected also for sample concessions with less than 20,000 cubic meters of annual allowable cut. These were used as substitute samples in cases where the principal samples had no active logging operations at the time they were visited by the crew. Two types of sample plots were established in each sample location. (See Figure FORESTRY DAY ISSUE 1.) The first was a circular plot with a fixed area ( 0.4 hectare), using a uniform adjustment of radius to compensate for slope. The circular plots were established where timber felling had just been completed and the trees bucked or marked for use, but where the skidding of logs had not started. The other type of sample was made up of strips 10 meters wide and 0.2 hectare in area laid out in the shape of an inverted U. These strips were established in areas where skidding or yarding had terminated. The classification of materials measured on the sample plots is as follows : Material, Trees cut for use Cull trees used Sound trees destroyed in felling Circular Plots (Trees felled and bucked) Definition All sound trees 15 cm. or larger in diameter bucked or marked for use, whose stumps are within the 0.4 beetare plot. All cull trees on the circular plot that are bucked or marked for use. All previouslysound trees 15 cm. in diameter or larger, on or outside the circular plot that were either destroyed or changed from Page 35 a. CU-culCll' plot, 0.4 hecta.re Sound trees destroyed in skidding Abandoned sound logs Sound trees cut for use sound to cull in felling a tree cut for use. Strip Plots (Skidding or yarding comPJeted) All previouslysound trees 15 cm. or larger in diameter within the sample strip that were destroyed in skidding, yarding or road building. All merchantable logs within the sample strip bucked or marked for use, but abandoned. Sound trees cut and removed for t--~-1---&.,S M. ---i-rl I I I t -·-1--,---------;--+ -O·~-+---o-.._ _ _ _ _ _.._.__ I b. strtp plot, 0.2 hec~are use within the s a m p 1 e strip. Rough estimates of the volume actually removed were taken from measurement of stumps, position of tree tops and heights of residual trees. Results of the Study The 30 sample areas were established as follows-I sample each in Basilan City, Zamboanga del Norte and Misamis Oriental; 2 samples each in Zamboanga City and Lanao del Norte; 4 each in Zamboanga del Sur and Cotabato; 5 in Davao; 3 in Surigao and 7 in Agusan. The annual allowable cuts of the samples ranged from 5,000 cubic meters for a small operator using the "Bataan system" of logging to more than 200,000 cubic meters for a highly-mechanized logging operation. A total of 443 trees were measured during the study, classified into 171 trees cut for use, 159 trees destroyed in felling and 113 destroyed in skidding or yarding. There were 18 abandoned logs measured and 106 trees estimated as cut and yarded on the sample strips. Not a single cull tree was found cut for use in the 30 sample areas. The following table gives the distribution of the utilization samples by tree class and species groups: Table 1. Species Distribution of Utilization Samples Tree Class Cut for use Damaged in felling Damaged in yarding T 0 TA L Guijo, Narig, Yakal 1 18 8 27 I I Apitong, Mayapis, Tangile, Red lauan 85 81 63 229 Almost all of the trees cut for use belonged to dipterocarp species. There were more dipterocarp trees damaged during both felling and yarding than other species, too. This is a clear indication of the species composition in Mindanao oldgrowth forests. The study showed that for merchantable-sized trees ( 55 cm. or larger) on the average hectare, 14.0 trees were cut for use, 1. 7 trees were damaged in felling and 1.6 trees destroyed while yarding, skidding or road building. Table 2 summarizes the distribution of the sample by tree size. Interestingly, no samp!e tree cut for use was found to be lower than 55 cm. in diameter. More trees belonging to the smaller diameter groups were damaged because they were both more dense in composition and more susceptible to destmction by felling and yarding. Many of the bigger trees ( 55 cm. or larger) destroyed by felling sustained heavily broken crowns or broken main stems; those destroyed by yarding were usually up-rooted or toppled by tractors or other equipment. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Almon, Bagtikan, Kalunti, White lauan 82 28 8 118 All Diptero carps 168 127 79 374 Kalantas, Lumbayao, Narra 3 32 34 69 Total 171 159 113 443 Among the 171 trees cut for use. 88 per cent were 75 cm. or larger. The logging industry in Mindanao seems to be geared to meet the demands of large-sized, high quality veneer logs for export. The mayapis-tangile-red lauan group accounted for 50% of the number of trees cut for use while the almon-bagtikan-white lauan group totalled 46%. The rest was made up of kalunti, guijo and other non dipterocarp species. An analysis was made to find out whether a relationship existed between size of operation and the degree of utilization. The results indicated no apparent relationship between size and per cent utilization. Some small operators had relatively high utilization while a few of the bigger operations had surprisingly low utilization. A comparison was made to show what type of operation was the most efficient in utilizing the forest resource taking into consideration the volume cut, damaged, abandoned and actually utilized. There were three common types of logging operation in Mindanao-self-loading (Bataan Page 3i ;;;c IJQ " ~ d ~ ~ t"' ~ ;i Vl Cut for use Damaged in felling Damaged in yarding -- - - -TOTAL - - - - 15I 34 cm. 0 73 40 - - - - - - - - - 118 Table 2. Size Distribution of Utilization Samples DIPTEROCARP All -----· --------·----------35- I I I 15- I 35I Species I Total 54 cm. ' 55 + Total I 34 cm. 54cm. 55 + Total 0 168 168 0 0 3 3 171 34 20 127 13 16 3 32 159 22 17 79 24 8 2 34 113 56 205 374 37 24 8 GD 443 system), tractor logging and high-lead system. Although some operations used a combination of types, the data were classified by the type of operation used on the logging set-up from which measurements were actually taken. Results of the comparison (See Table 3) indicated that the self-loading system of operation was the most wasteful of timber due to large percentage losses in abandoned logs and damage incurred to sound trees during felling. Most of the damage attributed to yarding were actually due to the knocking down of sound trees 'Yhen spur lines were cleared by bulldozers for the self-loading trucks. There was litt!e difference between the efficiency of tractor logging and high-lead logging, but there was a tendency for a bigger volume loss due to damaged trees and abandoned logs for the high-lead logging operation. Table 3. Distribution of Total Loss by Type of Operation Felling Yarding Abandoned Sawlog 1 I Type I Sawlog Portions Portions Total Damaged Damaged Logs Un-used0 Used i ! Self-loading 15.3 4.7 3.8 7.9 68.3 100 Tractor 9.2 3.8 2.6 7.4 75.8 100 High-lead 9.5 4.2 3.1 7.9 76.5 100 0 Merchantable sections of sawlogs left in high stumps and tree tops. Analysis of volume data showed that 1.385 cubic meters are drained from the forest to produce 1 cubic meter of utilizable volume. This means that the average Mindanao logging operation eliminates 1.385 cubic meters of timber from the forest for every cubic meter of log that is delivered to its log pond. During the entire process of logging, to produce 1 cubic meter of utilized volumes, the following takes place: Net vol. that reaches the log pond . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 cu. m. left in high stumps and upper log portions 0.105 cu. m. in sound trees destroyed during felling 0.19 cu. m. in sound trees destroyed during yarding 0.099 cu. m. in abandoned logs left in woods . . . . . . . . 0.062 cu. m. 1.395 cu. m. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE (Subtract) Net over-utilized volume in low stumps and upper stem portions included in tops logs _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0.010 cm. Total net volume drain _ _ _ _ 1.385 cm. This is equal to about 72% utilization for the average Mindanao logging operation. Although damage to residual trees during the process of felling and yarding is unarnidable, the large amount of timber lost at present in Mindanao logging operations can be minimized. The use of improved felling and yarding techniques by trained fallers and yarding crews can reduce the volume of timber damage. Close supervision of felling crews by logging foremen would help prevent careless cutting and decrease the amount of timber left in abandoned logs, high stumps and unutilized upper log portions. Page 39 Summary A timber utilization study is conducted by regions to determine the extent of actual timber use in comparison with forest inYentory merchantability standards. Results of the study undertaken in 30 sample operations in Mindanao show that: 1. Ninety-eight per cent of the trees being cut for use belonged to dipterocarp species; dipterocarps also predominated among the trees damaged during felling and yarding. 2. For merchantable-sized trees ( 55 cm. or larger), a per hectare average of 14.0 trees were cut for use, 1.7 trees were damaged in felling and 1.6 trees were damaged in yarding or roadbuilding. 3. Eighty-eight per cent of the trees cut for use were 75 cm. or larger. 4. No clear relationship was found between the size of operation and degree of utilization. SUMMARY ... (Continued from page 34) j. Where natural regeneration of the logged over areas is not successfully established, artificial reforestation should be done. 6. Secure necessary regulations for terracing by the occupants and/ or owners of the agricultural lands before certification for distribution. 7. Conduct specialized research on water conservation, soil erosion, sedimentation and mnoff problems through a "teamwork" approach by scientist such as soil technologist, engineer, geologist, hydrologist, reforestation and foresters. This will lead to evolving of a common outlook and establishing of principles for the application of research findings to a similar area. 8. Better coordination among the Government agencies: the Bureau of Forestry, Reforestation Administration, Parks and Wildlife Office, Bureau of Soils, Bureau of Animal Industry, National Power CorporaPage 40 5. The self-loading system of logging had the lowest utilization ( 68 per cent); both tractor and high-lead logging had better utilization without much difference between them ( 77 and 76 per cent, respecively). 6. The average Mindanao logging operation drained 1.385 cubic meters of timber to produce a cubic meter of utilizable volume. The 0.385 cubic meters were contained in high stumps, upper log portions, trees destroyed in felling and yarding, and abandoned logs. 7. Closer supervision and use of improved felling and yarding methods can minimize the loss of valuable timber and consequently increase the utilization of the forest resource in Mindanao. REFERENCE USED Instmctions for a timber utilization study of Mindanao, Bureau of Forestry, 1962. Unpublished. tion, Bureau of Public Works, Bureau of Public Highways, Weather Bureau, as well as city and local government offices. ( d) Legislative Measure 1. A legislation should be drafted for the protection and rehabilitation of the watershed, guaranteed with a continuing source of funds for the purpose. Along this line, each cooperating agency should prepare a technical and financial program for watershed management, and funds should be included in their yearly budgets. Past experience has shown that nothing of consequence has been done to implement the recommendations of previous surveys, except for the reforestation of some critical areas. Specific responsibility should be gi\'en to the government agencies concerned in the protection, rehabilitation and development of the Watershed. LITERATURE CITED Ambuklao \\'atershed Reconnaisance Survey Report. 1964. Bureau of Forestry. (Unpublished). 65 pp. FORESTRY LEAVES A PROPOSAL: Reforestation Upon An Ecological Basis The area in need of reforestation in the Philippines is about 1,390,600 hectares (Cunanan, 1962) consisting of open grasslands and watersheds. This area is increasing every year by about 50,000 hectares (Baja, 1962). Most of these lands are very difficult to reforest. The difficulty is evidenced by the fact that replanting has been a major operation in reforestation \\·ork. During the fiscal year 1962-63, out of the 35,422.60 hectares planted, replanting was done on 10,154.39 hectares or about 30 percent of the total area planted ( Viado, 1963). There is, therefore, a need for trying other methods in reforestation. The factors contributing to the reforestation difficulties are briefly discussed and a method of overcoming them is presented in this paper. The Problem The necessity of replanting arises from low survival of seedlings planted in the preceding planting season. Survival of planted seedlings is usually unsatisfactory so that replanting is necessary if proper density is desired in the plantation. Survival is dependent upon two groups of factors: habitat factors or those associated with the site and planting material factors or those associated with the plants used for planting. Habitat factors. - In the Philippines, the habitat factors that often influence survival and growth are soil and climatic conditions, fire, and host vegetation. They are intimately interrelated. They influence each other so that a change in the intensity and/ or duration of action of one factor may trigger a chain of changes in the other FORESTRY DAY ISSUE site factors. By lRENEO L. DOMINGO Instructor in Silviculture The reforestation areas are almost devoid of top soil. Whatever soil left is exposed to the elements, compacted and hardened, and almost completely dry during the summer months. Consequently, the soil is almost sterile and is in no position to support a plantation consisting of the desired commercial species of trees which are usually very exacting in their silvical requirements. The soil conditions are partly brought about by the climate above the ground. A dry and hot climate induces faster evaporation from the ground. On the other hand, too much rainfall during the rainy season supplies more water than the soil can hold and a lot of the mineral solutions are leached away and lost (Storer, 1962). The heating and cooling of the soil is directly affected by the atmosphere and vegetation above it through their "greenhouse" effect. The climate, in tum, is influenced by the soil at varying degrees depending upon the soil material, water content, and color. Climate makes the greatest imprint on the plants (Tourney and Korstian, 1947). In the reforestation areas, the microclimate or climate near the ground' is much more 1 The expression "near the ground" is relative. To the aerologists who think in terms of a vast atmosphere, the lower thousand meters above the ground is "near the ground" {Giger, 1959). In this paper, microclimate or the climate near the ground refers to the atmospheric conditions from the groUJJd surface to a height of about two meters. l\ticroclimate is the climate as a whole for a given geographical area or for a given region from about two meters above the ground surface to an indefinite height in the atmosphere. Their difference lies in their proximity to the earth's surface. Page 41 important than the macroclimate to the plants. The microclimate where the young plants are exposed is unbearably hot during the summer months and most of the time the temperature becomes lethal and kills the seedlings. It should be remembered that plants are most sensitive during their youth (Geiger, 1959). Grass fire which commonly occurs in summer every year has its share of bad effects on the young plants either through direct killing or through its action on the soil. When there is grass fire, the young plants are killed instantly. The energy that has accumulated in the grass as a result of the blending of the sun's radiant energy with the elements from the air, the water, and the soil through its "laboratory" of green chlorophyll should be returned to and helps build up the soil but, with grass fire sweeping the area, this energy is blazed up and released to the atmosphere. The accumulated debris, decomposed or undecomposed, are likewise burned and their energy is released to the atmosphere. Thus repeated occurrence of grass fire not only kills the young plants but also makes the soil poorer. The host vegetation which usually consists of grasses, herbs, and other low plants grows very fast and gradually outcompetes the planted seedlings for light, moisture, and soil nutrients. If the planted seedlings do not grow fast enough, they surely would not survive. Planting material factors. - The severe conditions of the habitat factors necessitate the use of high quality seedlings of the right species. The species must be properly selected for the particular planting area because different species require different silvical factors. The usual practice, however, has been to plant any commercial species without considering the correlation between their silvical requirements and the silvical factors existing in optimum amounts in the planting area. Every species thrives best under a particular set of habitat conditions. One set of soil and climatic conditions may Page 42 induce maximum survival and growth for one species but may be entirely unsuitable for another species (Tourney and Korstian, 1948). Each plant species is a specialist, adapted by its own habit of growth and its own special requirements for light, moisture and nutrients to grow best in its own preferred environment (Storer, 1962). A guiding principle, therefore, should be to select species for planting by considering the correlation between the silvical requirements of the species and the silvical factors existing in optimum amounts in the particular planting area. The nature of the planting material is as important as the selection of species. Any seedling is of ten used for planting regardless of its quality. It is not uncommon to see seedlings being planted that have very succulent tops and very slender stems. These succulent tops usually die back and usually lead to total death of the seedlings after planting. The planting materials should be properly developed and conditioned in the nursery before setting them out in the field so that they can better withstand the severe site conditions. The development and conditioning of the seedlings can spell the difference between success and failure of the plantation. Planting materials also usually have very few lateral roots and have large crowns. This kind of seedlings naturally does not survive nor grow well because the lateral roots which are largely responsible for moisture and nutrient absorption are not enough to compensate for the heavy transpiration in the large crown. Every seedling should have a compact and fibrous roots system that is capable of absorption with maximum efficiency in order that it can utilize the moisture in the soil that is of ten insufficient. The crown or transpiring surface should not be too large so that water transpired will not be greater than the moisture absorbed by the root system. In other words, there should be a proper balance between the root system and the crown. FORESTRY LEA YES The Proposal,2 Considering the conditions of the habitat factors and the conditions of most seedlings used for planting, it is no wonder that survival is usually very low and growth is very slow. The usually low survival due to the nature of the habitat factors and to the selective characteristic of forest tree species with regards to site requirements emphasizes the fact that it is very costly and unsatisfactory to go against the course of nature. The problem should be approached in a manner in which the natural course of plant community development is followed. Reforestation should be based upon the ecological conditions prevailing on the planting areas. This means that a "step by step" approach should be done, i.e., planting first the species that are growing naturally in the area regardless of their commercial value then planting the desired species later. The idea is to create ecological conditions more favorable to the desired species. For example, species without any commercial importance like some members of the Moraceae and Leguminosae families are usually found growing naturally in the difficult areas. The fact that these species are growing naturally in these areas is an indication that they are capable of withstanding the severe site conditions and they may be the best species to be planted. Although these species are of no commercial value, they could be planted just to build up and improve the soil and ameliorate the microclimate. After the soil has been built up and the microclimate changed to a point where it is considered favorable to the species desired, then underplanting of the latter could be done. The basic objective is to plant the species that can survive and grow in the area to create ecological conditions favorable to the de2 This proposal is a restatement of a recommendation contained in a report by the author to the U.S. Agency for International Development and Philippine Naitonal Economic Council as a returned participant of AID-NEC Type A Training program. This proposal is intended only for areas having the severe conditions described in the text. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE sired species. There is no use planting the desired commercial species immediately if they do not survive the extreme site conditions. Justification of the Proposal The proposal is based on the popular but controvercial ecological philosophy of plant succession.3 The plant communities in the reforestation areas, whether they are predominantly of grass, shrub, or of herb species, undergo a series of changes if given time and freedom from human interference. This series of changes is succession. It causes, and results from, the changes in soil and climatic conditions and in the flora and fauna of the area. These conditions act and react upon each other, alternating or simultaneously as a cause and an effect until a state of equilibrium is reached (Clements, 1916). The present community improves the soil and microclimate and thus paves the way for the initiation of a next higher stage of vegetation which becomes more dominant and eventually crowds out the original community. The member plants together with the animals of the community and the climate above are the driving forces that produce the change. The trend is towards a progressive development of a soil richer in humus and minerals and with better physical properties until a mature soil is developed. The development of the soil or the community itself may have come from an array of entirely unweathered rock materials as a result of any form of denudation or it may have come from a pond of water. The former is characterized by the driest conditions and the later by the wettest. Step by step, both will proceed toward a common stable or climax vegetation. There is convergence towards identity. From the rock, pioneer plants of lower forms like the lichens may gain a foothold. The roots of these organisms secrete acids which dissolve the minerals from the rock 3 There is still a chaotic terminology in Plant Ecology. This is due to the presence of several schools of ecological thought. Succession in this paper follows the Clementation point of view. Page 43 and thus speed up the weathering of the rock, thus the beginning of soil (Storer, 1962). The lichens, therefore, will off er a seedbed with moisture, foothold on the rock, and minerals for food to the more delicate plants of higher forms. The 5eedbed prepared by the lichens will perhaps be inhabited next by mosses, fe1ms and other hardy weeds. They grow and die adding their substance to the soil, building a deeper and better seedbed for higher plants to occupy. The growing community will spread and the roots will fill up the soil. As some plants die, their roots, stems, leaves, and other parts deposit their substance built from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight and be.come the food of the small organisms like bacteria, molds, and the rest. They decompose the plant and animals remains, change them into new chemical combinations. The animals that live in the soil, in turn, mix the decomposed materials with the soil particles. The earthworms, for example, eat the decomposed materials, mix them with the soil particles passing through their bodies, digest the whole and cast it up on the soil surf ace. Thus every plant or animal adds its bit to the building of the growing living soil until a mature soil is developed. Coincident with the progressive development of the soil is the gradual invasion of the area by higher forms of plants and the gradual amelioration of the microenvironment. The shade and moisture transpired by the plants raise the humidity and reduce the range of temperature. The present plant community, by making the soil and microclimate better, encourages the comingin of the higher plants. These higher plants that invade the area through migration and seed dessimination by wind, birds, and other agents are usually more vigorous, bigger in size, and faster growing and eventually crowd out the present occupants of the area. Thus, there will be a gradual change from one plant community to another. Likewise, the succeeding community Page 44 will further build up the soil and again encourages still higher plants to come in. The new invader will become dominant and eventually crowd out the members of the preceding community. These changes from one plant community to another go on until a stable vegetation is attained. This stable vegetation is the climax. In most wet regions like the tropics the climax is usually a forest (Baker, 1950). The member plants in this climax community replace themselves and not by other forms of plants so that no further change into another community is possible. In reforestation, the successional stage or stage of development of the planting area in question and its vegetable cover should be taken into consideration. The changes toward better site conditions can be artificially accelerated by planting species characteristic of the existing successional stage. In the case of the reforestation areas in the Philippines, the appropriate species may be the non-commercial species that are usually found growing naturally in the area. Their presence there is a more or less sure sign that the species will survive and grow if planted. The planting of these species will speed up the improvement of the soil and other habitat factors and hence the change to another stage that is more favorable to the commercial species that are exacting in silvical requirements. The commercial species which usually characterize a climax vegetation should not be planted in an area that is of lower successional stage because they will not be able to survive and grow. We should wait until a favorable environment is created by planting non-commercial species or species belonging to lower successional stage of site development. The approach discussed here is now being put into practice in a small scale at the Caniaw Reforestation Project in Ilocos Sur. In that project, the difficult areas are first planted with ipil-ipil or kakawate. (Continued on page 73) FORESTRY LEAVES Pulp And Paper Research And Industry Problems In The Philippines INTRODUCTION The problems of the pulp and paper industry in the Philippines are partly technological hut largely and finally economic. This paper presents some of these problems based on consultations and observations during visits to the mills, the possible solutions or remedial measures to overcome them, and the pulp· and paper research at the Forest ProduC'ts Research Institute. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Wgh cost of imported 'PUips Out of the 19 paper mills currently operating in the Philippines, only two are producing some of their pulp requirements. A mill \vhich utilizes bamboo is producing about 40 tons of bleached kraft pulp daily, and another mill which utilizes sugar cane bagasse is producing daily about 28 tons of bleached pulp. To meet the pulp needs of the other paper mills, pulps, as well as waste paper, are imported. And with the decontrol program of the government, the cost of imported pulps is practically doubled thus causing a corresponding increase in the production cost of locally manufactured papers from these imported materials. Hypothetically without increasing the selling price of paper, the profits which 1 Assistant Director, and Assistant Chief, Chemical Investigations Division, Forest Products Research Institute, University of the Philippines, respectively. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE By F. N. TAMOLANG AND P. v. BAWAGAN1 should be enjoyed before the decontrol now go to the cost of raw material. The only permanent solution to this problem is for us to produce the pulp from local fibrous materials. Costs and economic size of pulp and paper mills. Because of the small paper-tonnage output of the majority of local paper mills, most paper producers engage mainly in the production of tissue paper. This seems the only type of paper which they can produce in order to realize a profit. But there is the problem of competition in marketing this product, which usually results in the lowering of its price. Diversified production of papers of cliff erent grades and quality may solve this problem of marketing competition. Ironically, we fail to realize that, even in Japan where most of our small paper machines were procured, big mills are fast replacing the small ones. We must admit that there is such a thing as economic size, below which profit is generally not attainable. For example, under Philippine conditions, it is not economical to put up a chemical recovery plant if the rated daily capacity of a kraft pulp mill is less than 50 tons. A sound cost study can guide us in our choice of the size of a mill with provision for future expansion. This involves, among other things, a thorough evaluation of the supply of raw materials on a contiPa~e 45 nuous basis, local demand and possible export of paper products, availability of technicians and, above all, availability of capital. For projects that require heavy capital investment, combinations of foreign and domestic capital will be most favorable but the lead must be taken by domestic capital. A very good example of this is the pulp and paper project of the Pulp Corporation of the Philippines at Bislig, Surigao. This mill has an annual rated capacity of 66,000 tons newsprint, 26,000 tons kraft container-board and 12,400 tons short-fibered bleached kraft pulp. The estimated total investment is 200 million pesos. Locational factors and site selection The general principles of location for a pulp and paper factory are the same as those of other industries. Some of the important locational factors that may be considered before a site is finally selected are: ( 1) proximity to abundant supply of suitable water, gas, electric power ,and supply of coal or oil, ( 2) proximity to source of raw materials and market of finished products, ( 3) waste disposal, and ( 4) availability of skilled labor. Practically, no site is ideal from the standpoint of all locational factors. Management will have to balance the advantages and disadvantages of the various sites and must concentrate its attention to the site which offers the optimum combination of locational factors. For a plant site selected in an underdeveloped area, capital requirements other than investment in the mill proper may be very high. For instance, a mill in a remote area has to provide its own power and may have to put up an electrolytic plant for the manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda. Furthermore, jt has to provide certain basic community services such as transportation, non-industrial power, communication, education, health, etc. These, as a general rule, already exist in an industrialized area. Page 46 Exploitation of PhiUppine forests Commercial timber and noncommercial species are usually found intermixed in Philippine forests. Their economic exploitation for pulp and papermaking may require that they be used without segregation or, if selection is necessary, that they be grouped into mixtures as large as possible. Data on the composition and quantity of forest stands are essential for a sound and efficient forest management fitted to this economic type of exploitation. The ultimate goal is the wise utilization of available wood materials compatible with the sustained yield of forest stands. From the standpoint of the economic requirements of the pulp and paper heterogeneous forest stands into pure stands and/ or a few important species of greater economic conversion value. This may be done, in part, by favoring the natural regeneration and/or planting of the desirable species. The biological fitness and capacity of the desirable species for continuous natural regeneration, suitable to the impact of exploitation or repeated cutting envisaged to supply a pulp and paper mill with pulpwood, are the important keys to successful forest production. Otherwise, artificial planting in the last resort to attain pulpwood forest production. It is important to note that, besides the standing trees, there are wood wastes such as logging residue, sawmill slabs, edgings, trimmings and others, which have prospects of utilization. Integrated pulping operation with sawmills and/ or plywood plants is a trend which leads to a fuller utilization of timber. It is not surprising to hear of the amazing wood utilization of the highly integrated Weyerhaeuser Co. of the United States, that "what is left in a log is just its shadow." Another one which needs to be emulated is Japan's high percentage of wood utilization. Its wood-chip production ( 3) 2 which 2 Underscored numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited. FORESTRY LEAVES started in 1956 has progressed tremendously. In 1959, the total chip production reached over two mil!ion cubic meters, which is equivalent to about 230,000 metric tons (oven-dry weight) of chemical pulp. Wood chips are produced mainly from sawmill and logging wastes. They are sold to fiberboard and pulp mills. It is probable that a similar wood-chip industry can be established here in the Philippines, if the market for wood chips is developed TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Pulp and paper mills in the Philippines must face unforeseen technological problems e\·ery now and then. Some of these problems had already been solved, others are still being solved, and much more remain to be solved in the future. In some cases, operation stops and this means nonproduction, temporary unemployment and financial setback. Here are a few examples. A pulp and paper mill which utilizes bamboo started operation about two years ago. Its operational problem was associated with silica inherently present in the bamboo. In another pulp and paper mill which utilizes sugar cane bagasse, the problems of shives and color reversion of paper have been there since the mill started operation before the second world war. Unfortunately, a pulp and paper mill which started operation in 1961 stopped its pulping operation because of the problems of \vaste disposal and insufficient water supply. In another paper mill, quality control of the finished paper was a problem. The pulp used was imported kraft softwood pulp which, if proportly beaten or refined, would give one of the strongest paper for cement bags. The above-mentioned problems are presented for their proper analysis and solutions, and are not intended to undermine FORESTRY DAY ISSUE the reputation of anybody but to benefit all concerned. In the particular problem associated with silica in the black liquor, it was found that the pH is critically adjusted from 11.2 to 12.0 in order to minimize scaling due to the silica content of the liquor. The latest remedial solution by a new pulp and paper plant in Pakistan, however, is the removal of lilica before introducing the black liquor in the chemical recovery system( 4). There may be other solutions to this problem but, ultimately, what really counts is the economy and fitness of the set-up that is required by the particular solution into the present layout of the mill without unnecessary alterations and expense. The problems of shives and color reversion of paper, produced from sugar cane bagasse, seem to be basically due to the pulping process employed. Unless plant management is willing to take major steps for innovation, i.e., its adaption of a better pulping process, these problems may remain unsolved. Only time can tell how long it can stand product-quality competition. The problems of waste disposal and insufficiency of water supply are mainly due to the wrong location of the mill which is a vital factor in the economy of operation. The problem of quality control in a paper mill is largely due to the limited knowledge of the technical personnel on pulp-quality evaluation. Paper pulp is normally evaluated by beating it in a laboratory beater and then forming handsheets for physical testing. Thus, we examine the freeness, bursting, tearing, folding, density, etc. of a pulp, using prescribed laboratory testing conditions. With proper interpretation, these test results may serve as guides as to how the pulp will pedorm in papermaking. The solution to this particular problem of quality control in a paper mill is very simple. It involves, in part, a few weeks training of the mill's technical staff at the Institute. Page 47 These are some problems which should have been anticipated, for which appropriate actions or solutions should have been made. What seems important now is the recognition of these problems to prevent their future recurrence in the installation of new pulp and paper mills. The Role of the Forest Products Research Institute The dearth of information on the pulping and papermaking qualities of Philippine woods and other raw materials has partly caused the very slow utilization of our fibrous materials for pulp and paper manufacture. Cognizant of this need, the Philippine Congress wisely created the Forest Products Research Institute which, among other things, is engaged in pulp and paper research of local fibrous materials. From time to time, since 1957, results of its researches are published, presented in symposia or seminars, and spelled out in various consultations (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Studies at the Institute have shown the feasibility of the kraft pulping and papermaking of a naturally-occurring mixture of eight Philippine commercial timber species without segregation (Table 1). These species belong to the Dipterocarpaceae which make up 75 per cent of most forest stands in the country. Found equally desirable for papermaking are 15 species of the socalled wood or noncommercial species that are not being used for lumber or plywood manufacture (Table 2). Three of these species, lanipau, toog and tuai, exceed U.S. Federal Specification for Grade-B Wrapping while balobo closely equals this standard. In addition to research, the Institute has provided technical training to 58 men and women in various fields, including pulping and papermaking, pulp and paper testing, pulp bleaching, and chemical analysis of wood, pulp, and paper. Page 48 Since these activities of the Institute in research and training of technicians for the pulp and paper industry are vital to the national economic interest, the officials of the FPRI have initiated the creation of a "South-East Asia Pulp and Paper Research and Training Center", primarily, to establish an adequately equipped paper research and training laboratory. Researchers and technicians of the local industry and those from South-East Asian countries may be trained in the basic sciences and technologies applicable to the pulp and paper industry along a standard discipline where they can first, acquire technical competence and skill; second, research on the improvement of pulp and paper technology and the types and grades of pulp and paper compatible with Philippine raw materials; and third, be trained as skilled and semi-skilled pulp and paper technicians. Financial assistance from United Nations Special Fund for additional equipment and research facilities has been sought. On this aspect, the Philippine Congress readily responded by approving R.A. 3101, page 5, par. 3l(b), which appropriates the amount of PB00,000 for the construction of a Pulp and Paper Research Building. \Vith the favorable recommendation of the Program Implementation Agency, the release of this fund, although still pending approval by the President of the Philippines, will be most welcome in the interest of science and technology so that the Institute can contribute more to the implementation of the present administration's socio-economic program. The expanded activities of the Institute are all envisioned to meet the pressing needs of the country for pulp and paper. The vigorous development and progress of the local inf ant pulp and paper industry depend not only on adequate capital investment and favorable market but also on an aggressive program of research and a dynamic resource of technology. (Continued on page 72 i FORESTRY LEAVES 6 ~ '"'l ~ t:i :< .... fJl ~ l:':I 'ti ., Oil ~ ""' ~ Table 1. Physical-test data on wrapping papers from sulfate pulps <'f naturally-occuring mixtures of eight Philippine commercial timber species. Machine run no. I I 437 492 489 Sulfate pulp furnish 100% hardwood sulfate ( 8 species) a 100% hardwood sulfate ( 4 species) b 80% hardwood sulfate ( 8 species) & 20% imported softwood kraft0 Philippine commercial wrapping papers tested at the Institute (average of 6 samples) U.S. Federal specification for Grade-B wrapping Basis Thickweight ness ----~-~gm/sq. mils m. 56.7 3.8 63.4 3.7 63.2 4.1 60.2 3.6 65.1 I I Density Bust Tear Tensile factor factor breaking Folds length I -i--- -------~1- .. - - - I I I [ gm/cc. meters double I 0.59 27.2 114 4560 19 0.67 37.2 104 6660 48 0.60 30.2 144 5240 45 0.67 29.9 120 4480 30.2 115 a. 20% tangile. 17.0% red lauan, 19.6% white lauan, 18.4% mayapis, 7.4% apitong, 7.6% palosapis.5.0% guijo, and 5% manggachapui. b 26. 7 % tangile, 22. 7 % red lauan, 26. l % white lauan and 24.5% mayapis. c Same wood mixture as in Machine Run No. 1:37 plus 20% imported softwood kraft pulp. ;;p ~ .,. c "!j 0 :xi t'l1 ~ ~ t"' t!j > ~ t!j r:.n Table 2. Physical-test data on wrapping papers from sulfate pulps of 15 wood or noncommercial species. I I Basis / Thick- . Burst / Tear Tensile Test No •Machine run weight ness Density factor factor breaking Folds ·1 No. I' Common and Botanical names ----- ---'-l~gth __ ,, ____ _ gm/sq. M'l I ! 1 m. 1 s gm/cc. / meters double 126 142 Anab.iong ( Trema orientalis) 55.4 2.6 0.84 40.6 64 7440 446 21 26 Balakat-gubat ( Sapium luzonicum) 48.5 2.6 0.73 41.l 66 7270 271 18 8 Balobo ( Diplodiscus paniculatus) 40.6 3.3 0.48 39.6 llO 6210 174 166 167 Basikong (Ficus botryocarpa) 60.9 3.9 0.62 36.4 102 6120 156 169 170 Binuang ( OctomPlis sumatrana) 49.5 2.6 0.75 42.0 74 8020 226 2ll 216 Bolon (Alphonse a arborea) 71.9 4.2 0.64 25.1 84 5280 42 484 498 Hinlaumo ( M allot us ricinoides) 66.8 3.5 0.76 38.2 57 7530 29 151 160 Kupang (Parkia roxburghii) 70.6 3.5 0.80 52.1 76 9020 738 226 228 Lamio ( Dracontomelon edule) 65.5 .:3.6 0.72 38.6 97 7250 98 5 4 Lanipau ( Terminalia copelandii) 72.0 4.0 0.70 46.3 132 7380 433 68 62 Malakalumpang ( Sterculia ceramica,) 52.8 2.7 0.76 55.3 96 9020 326 530 545 Taluto ( Pterocymbium tinctorium) 65.2 3.6 0.71 49.7 70 9440 360 56 49 Tangisang-bayauak (Ficus variegata) 58.7 3.2 0.72 50.2 66 7760 369 1 2 Toog ( Combretodendron quadrialatum) 74.3 4.8 0.61 35.7 138 6310 250 98 lll T u a i ( Bischofia ;avanica) 70.6 3.8 0.73 33.5 ll6 6210 226 Small Lumberman's Approach To The Kaingin Problem· MR. TOASTMASTER, DISTINGUISHED GUESTS, FELLOW LOGGERS, FRIENDS: The subject closes to my heart is about trees. It also means a lot to my small pocket -· the pocket of a small logger. It is an honor and a privilege for me to address this august assemblage of experts and authorities on forests. Our president, Mr. Lorenzo S. Sarmiento of the Philippine Chamber of Wood Industries, would have been very happy to speak for our Chamber but because of prior engagement, he could not be personally present and he wishes to convey his apologies. Hence, I have been delegated to express here the views of the small logger's approach to the "kaingin" problem. I do not have to elaborate here the destruction caused by "kaingin" to our forests. In fact, we loggers are even blamed for both floods and droughts which we believe are aggravated by "kaingin". Soil erosion is directly caused by loss of plant life cover. As a small logger I know only too well the problem of this pernicious practice of shifting agriculture known as "kaingin" system. It is neither advantageous as an agricultural pursuit nor a dependable source of revenue. In order, however, to understand 0 Paper presentd by Mr. Rosauro Dongallo for Mr. Lorenzo Sarmiento. President of the Philippine Chamher of Wood Industries, during the National Conference on the Kaingin Problem on March 12-13. 1964 at the FILOIL Auditorium, Manila. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE well this problem we have look into the causes of their presence in our public forests. In our humble experience, we list them as follows: 1. Naturally nomadic tribes pursuing their age old practice of shifting agriculture. They are usually non-Christians. 2. Landless families following in the wake of logging operations as hinterlands are opened up to accessibility of transportation when the logging roads are constructed. 3. Land hungry speculators who clear virgin forest in the hope of selling land at a profit. 4. Plain ignorant squatters who have been led to believe that land grabbing might be economically feasible to solve their poverty. 5. Government apathy to prosecuting them for lack of interest, personnel, or funds. 6. Petty politicians who. in their desire to wrangle a vote, preach the "lan<l for landless" policy of the government conveniently slanted to justify an illegal entry into our forest. The net res11lt of these causes is the rampant devastat!on of our forest resources. This God-given gift, this natural wealth of our country, this third biggest dollar earner, this bountiful and beautiful soil cover will be lost to us and to the generations after us if we do not act now! This, I believe, is the main purpose of our convention. Page 51 We have heard the solutions proposed by others before me. The Bureau of Forestry and the Reforestation Administration, the Forest Research Institute and others, both government and private sectors, have their own way of combating this menance. Perhaps you will be shocked if I tell you of the small loggers' weapon - my own - in our small and humble capacity - Ladies and Gentlemen our own old reliable is the DOUBLE-BARELLED SHOTGUN. It is effective in scaring the "kaingineros"- from infiltrating our areas. And it is an effective persuader of the reluctant "squatters" to move out of our territory. "Shows of force" discourages the malevolent eye of these "kaingineros." But, we know that in the long run the "SHOTGUN" is not the "sure cure." We believe that existing laws and forestry rules and regulations are sufficient deterrents to would-be "kaingineros" and could really meet the challenge of active squatters and illegal loggers if only they were properly enforced. Sections 2750 and 2751 of the Revised Administrative Code impose a fine and imprisonment ranging from not more than P500.00 and 300-400 per cent of the government charges on the illegal cutting of timber and/ or imprisonment of two ( 2) months to one ( 1) year. Yet, sad to state, these laws and the forestry rules and regulations are not properly and zealously enforced by our government. With proper government support, we small loggers propose the following remedies: 1. Submit the names and addresses of "kaingineros" or "squatters" found in forest concessions to local forest officers; the district foresters, and the Bureau. Page 52 2. Submit same names and addresses of this "kaingineros" to local police agencies as well as the Justices of the Peace or Provincial Fiscals having jurisdiction over the area concerned. 3. The Bureau of Forestry should deputize such employees of small concessionaires, giving them ample powers to arrest and bring before the Courts of Justice violators of the anti-kaingin laws. 4. Convicted "kaingineros" should be resettled by the government in arable agricultural areas after they have served their penalties. 5. Massive information and educational campaign should be undertaken by the government with the help of the small concessionaires on forest conservation. 6. Oblige the concessionaires to reforest logged over or their denuded areas, under the supervision of forest officers. To us in business, experience has shown that project studies are useless without practical implementation. We could think up of all theories under the sun to fight the "kaingin" peril. We could talk ourselves hoarse on the beautiful strategies and intricate patterns of combat but without action, without united support, without effective leadership, without government assistance, without logistics and without sincerity, candor, integrity, and determination we shall all fail. I do hope that this convention could find the real solution, the effective cure, the practical approach. By then, I will tradein my shotgun; for a tractor part, for a better shirt of my lumberjack, for a tastier morsel of food for his family, for taxes to Juan de la Cruz. I thank you. FORESTRY LEAVES Legal And Political Aspects Of Kaingin· By ARTURO ALAFRIZ Solicitor General of the Philippines The Kaingin System and other forms of forest destmction are social, economic and legal problems and no campaign against kaingineros can be successful without an understanding of the problems. A most effective way of fighting kaingineros is not a resort to the penal laws. We have to recognize that essentially the problem of the kaingineros is a matter for social scientists, not for the lawyers. Many are driven to despoliation of our forest because of lack of opportunity to make a livelihood in lawful callings. the government must therefore exert efforts to open new ;ob opportunities for these people or to encourage private enterprises to absorb them. For those inclined to agriculture, the government must resettle them. Civic consciousness must be inculcated on these people, so that they will have more respect for the law. They should be made to realize the ill effects caused by their depredation and its adverse effect on the entire country and the future generations. The penal laws are more punitive than preventive. The government prosecutor steps into the picture only after the criminal act, hence, the damage has been done. However, a more vigorous prosecution of offenses may strike terror at the hearts of some kaingineros and serve as a deterrent. But unless the economic and social status of a kainginero is elevated we foresee that for each kainginero sent to jail, another one will take his place. And as we cannot keep kaingineros in jail indefinitely, we 0 Paper presented during the National Conference on the Kaingin Problem on March 12-13, 1964 at Filoil Auditorium, Manila. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE are sure that once released they would return to their illegal mode of livelihood. There are three penal laws to protect forests and trees against wanton destruction. These are: ( 1) Section 2751 of the Revised Administrative Code, as amended by Republic Act" 3701, the purpose of which is to discourage destruction of forests; ( 2) Public Act No. 3915, as amended by Republic Act 122, which provides for the establishment of N ati.onal Parks and declaring such parks as a game refuge; and ( 3) Republic Act No. 3571 which prohibits the cutting, destroying or injuring of planted or growing trees in public roads, plazas and other public places. There are five classes of forest areas protected by Republic Act No. 3701, namely: 1. public forest 2. proclaimed timberland 3. communal forest 4. communal pasture 5. forest reserve The following acts, unless permitted by the Director of Forestry, are penalized by said law: 1. To enter areas protected by the law and occupy the same; 2. to make kaingin therein; 3. to destroy in any manner such forest or part thereof; and 4. to cause any damage -to the timber stand and other forest products and forest growth found therein. Page 53 Likewise, any person aiding, abetting or assisting other persons who commit any or all of the aforesaid acts are equally liable. The penalty provided under Republic Act 3071, is graduated depending upon the nature of the area entered into and the value of the damage caused. The government prosecutor cannot act in a case unless a complaint is filed. Once a case is instituted, he has to depend on the evidence submitted to him by the officials entrusted with the enforcement of the laws. To this end forestry employees and officials must investigate cases of kaingin and gather the necessary evidence for their prosecution. Under Republic Act 3071, representatives, agents or employees of the Bureau of Forestry and Reforestation Administration who fail to report and/ or prevent persons who destroy trees and other forest products within their jurisdiction are also criminally liable. Under Forest Circular No. 297, officers in charge and ranking forest officers are directed to file criminal complaints and prosecute them in the justice of the peace courts, using the investigating Forest Guard or Forest Officer as his witnesses, in addition to civilian witnesses. In this connection, the jurisdiction of the justices of the peace, which are now called municipal courts, have been increased under Republic Act No. 3828. They have jurisdiction over all offenses, except violation of election laws, in which the penalty provided by law is imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine of not more than three thousand pesos or both such fine and imprisonment. Formerly, their jurisdiction was limited to cases where the penalty provided by law is imprisonment for not more than six months or a fine of not more than two hundred pesos or both fine and imprisonment. Page 54 Municipal courts in the capitals of provinces and city courts have concurrent jurisdiction as the Court of First Instance to try parties charged vdth an offense in which the penalty provided by law does not exceed prison correccional or imprisonment for not more than six years or a fine not exceeding six thousand pesos or both. With respect to the cases involving entries into prohibited areas under Republic Act 3701 and Republic Act 122, I believe that the same can be filed with the Municipal Courts irrespective of the amount of the fined imposed because under Section 87 (b) of the Judiciary Act, as amended, the said courts have concurrent jurisdiction with the courts of first instance over cases of trespass on government property. Inasmuch as the crimes of unlawful occupation and destruction of forest products presuppose trespass on government property, it follows that municipal courts have jurisdiction over said cases even if the fine imposed is more than P3,000. Compliments of MR. & l\IRS. JUSTINO OFRENEO Tagurn, Davao Dealer of Minor Forest Products Specializing on Rattan Products Concessionaire - Producer FORESTRY LEAVES Stabilization Of Road Cut And Fill Slopes The construction of a land transportation line, such as a road, involves a lot of soil disturbance. The processes of cutting and filling destroy the equilibrium of the soil and encourage erosion. This phenomenon of soil movement is more evident and critical with highly erosive soils on steep topography under unfavorable hydrologic conditions. Fill slopes provide the greatest problem in maintaining soil stability which is necessary to keep the usefulness of the road as well as to preserve the soil and watershed values of the area. There is therefore a need for control measures to check or minimize soil erosion, especially along newly-constructed roads. Such an objective would seem to be difficult to attain considering that the original ground may have taken hundreds, if not thousands, of years to form. Nevertheless, man has been able to come up with provisions to neutralize whatever harmful effects that may arise as a consequence of disturbance of such work of nature. The control measures taken up in this paper are being used in other countries like the United States. Almost all of the accompanying photographs are representatives of the author's actual observations in the United States Rocky Mountain Region. The fact that conditions and problems in the Rockies appear to be similar to those in the Philippines (especially in the Northern Region), prompted the author to make the following presentation. SLOPE RATIO In opening up a road, the cut and fill embankments are laid back at an angle FORESTRY DAY ISSUE by ANGELO G. MORENO Instructor in Lumbering U.P. College of Forestry sufficient to prevent or minimize the sloughing and sliding of the soil. The degree of sloping depends on the type of soil and embankment. Cut slope ratios range from 1/ 4: 1 to 1 : 1 while fill slope ratios vary from 1 : 1 to 2: 1, depending on the type of material, i.e., ordinary earth, loose rocks, solid rocks, etc. Loose and erosive soils requiring higher slope ratios involve bigger volumes of earthwork. DRAINAGE SYSTEM Drainage structures are a necessity in roads. They are responsible in collecting and removing surf ace and subsurface waters from the roadway which would otherwise weaken the roadbed and cause erosion. Among the numerous drainage structures, the most commonly used in erosive soils are: insloping, cross-drain, and downspout. The road is sloped by about five percent to the inside ditch and cross-drained by a culvert. A downspout, in the form of a whole or half corrugated metal pipe or wooden trough, is laid along the fill slope. This structure catches and channels the water flowing from the culvert to the foot of the slope instead of allowing it to fall freely on the fill embankment. TERRACING AND RIPRAPPING The newly cut or filled embankments are not as stable as the original ground. The occurrence of erosion is expected in these areas and is further enhanced by an increase in slope length. The primary purpose of terracing is to divide a long sustained slope into shorter lengths as well as to intercept and drain Page 55 the surf ace water that flows from the areas above them. The water that eventually reaches the foot of the slope is reduced in volume and velocity, thereby reducing the erosion potential to a minimum. An insloped terrace is actually a drainage structure. It cuts off the water source above the road and drains the intercepted water to a main drainage structure beyond ( 4)0. Under heavy rainfalL the terraces may fail if no additional engineering devices are provided. The most popular means of stabilizing retaining walls is by riprapping with either stones or poles. The stones are cemented together by mortar or concrete, whereas, the poles are simply driven into the ground and provided with cross members. RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF VEGETATIVE COVER The most widely accepted control of the destructive process of erosion is re-vegetation of the disturbed areas. Under normal conditions, a well-vegetated slope maintains the delicate balance between sudicial and subsudicial runoffs (I). Plant cover breaks the fall of precipitation and aids its percolation through the soil for eventual delivery to stream channels as clear water. On bare slopes, most of the precipitation run off the soil surface at a greater volume and velocity. The transportation line may then be cut off and siltation of streams and dams may set in. Once road construction cuts through the original ground profile, the adjoining cut and fill embankments are exposed to the natural agents of runoff and erosion. Neither good drainage systems nor higher slope ratios alone are sufficient to control the movement of erodible soils under extreme conditions. The inexpensive but slow process of natural re-vegetation cannot be relied upon 0 Numbers in parenthesis refer to literature cited at the end of the paper. Page 56 because of the longer time involved. On the other hand, sodding, although undoubtedly the quickest of all methods, is expensive and impractical for extensive application. A compromise between these two extreme cases has been found to be the most feasible. It calls for the artificial application of grass seeds and seeing to it that they are retained on the slope until germination. Losses are incurred when the seeds slide down the slope, blown by the wind or carried by sud ace runoff. Insects (ants, in particular), birds, and rodents, however, are responsible for most losses. As soon as the need for artificial seeding is established, the question to ask and answer is: 'What particular species grows under such a different condition of slope and soil surface? And if it does grow, has it the qualities necessary to check excessive sudace runoff and erosion It is well to bear in mind that such a species should have the following qualities: I. perennial 2. fast grower 3. short-stemmed 4. abundant foliage for greater area occupied per stem 5. dense mass of fibrous roots that hold the soil and aid water infiltration. The seeds should be disseminated in the slopes by mechanical, rather than by manual method. This requires a machine that can spray the appropriate mixture of seeds, water, fertilizer and other requirements at a high speed. One machine, the HydroSeeder (Fig. 2), has been found to be the most suitable equipment for the job. The mixture is drawn from the trailer-mounted container and discharged through the water gun by pressure. The rate of distribution is regulated by pressure and the speed by which the machine is pulled by the prime mover. FORESTRY LEAVES Fig. 2. The Hy· dro-Seeder spraying a mixture of water, fertilizer and grass seeds to the rm slope. • ..... -___ f: . - ·~ ... .; ' Fig. l. A road constructed on very steep slopes in a watershed area. Fig. 3. Mulch used in combina· tion with trench· ing and jute net· ting to stabilize rm slopes and to hold grass seeds. -ii .· ,.~ .. '· •-· .l ·!'..' :"· I : ' e . . . .. . ..; ... c· ~' ;... . ..... ~,.....· ... ,,.' ,...,.: .. " ·, . . " . ~... ~ ·. . ·,. . . ~ ..... ;; .. ,, ,. .. - ~ -~, I I - .. · ,.' . " ... . ' Fig. 5 J the. f "II · ute nets I "d 1 slope. 81 on _,,, . ... . . Fig. 4 S . intervals . tnps of . on the fill Wirt" mesh slope. established at r,,... The following are the various treatments applied in order to minimize losses of seeds as well as to hasten their germination and growth. Chemical Treatment.-Birds, ants, and rodents are prevalent on the road embankments after the seeds have been discharged. By and large, they are responsible for seed losses and for the failure of many re-vegetation projects by seeding. To solve this problem, the seeds should be made to appear, smell, and taste disagreeably to these creatures. This can be done by immersing the seeds in a certain chemical solution. It should be emphasized, however, that the chemical to be used should not be poisonous. Not all creatures which feed on seeds are enemies of man. Birds, for instance, deserve protection and conservation. The chemical shall simply cause a temporary itching of the bird's throat in addition to its disagreeable smell and taste. Prevention, not extermination by chemical poisoning, should be the ultimate goal of chemical treatment. Fertilization. -The surface of the cut or fill slope offers conditions which are not suited for plant growth. Better results can be obtained by the application of fertilizer or soil conditioner. In Japan, manuring is considered to be an absolute necessity when seeding is done on inert subsoil ( 5). The U.S. Forest Service used Mil-Organite (total nitrogen organic 5.5%;available phosphoric acid 4.0%) in its re-vegetation proening the soil before seeding. The rough surf ace minimizes the sliding of the seeds down the slope. The same operation may be done after seeding as a means of covering the seeds with soil as well as to hide the untreated seed from ants, birds, and rodents. This method was tried only once at Zena Creek, Idaho on an experimental basis. It was found to be impractical and a time-consuming method. Mu!ching.-After seeding. chipped hay or any mulching material is applied on the seeded areas. A new machine called the Mobile Chipper has been developed for the job. Hay, at the rate of two bales per 50 feet of road distance, is feed into the chipper and discharged by a blower. The mulch functions as a shed to prevent over-exposure of the seeds to the heat of the sun and to help retain moisture needed by the seeds for germination. To a certain extent, it prevents excessive surface runoff by neutralizing the impact of precipitation as it falls on the soil surf ace. Sometimes, mulching is used in combination with trenching (Fig. 3). One particular experimental area showed better results when mulch was spread on the slope where tranches were constructed at intervals. The grass was thicker along the trenches than in the other areas. This must have been due to the sliding of the seeds down the slope into the trenches. ject at the Zena Creek Logging Study in Netting. - Wire mesh and jute nets have Idaho ( 6). The rate of application was 10 been used in combination with mulching pounds per 100 square feet. with the main purpose of holding the soil The application of fertilizer is either and the seeds until a new plant cover is done before or simultaneously with seeding. established. The latter method is believed to be the Strips of ordinary chicken wire (Fig. 4) better proposition because it is faster. The supported by pegs are installed vertically fertilizer is made a part of the mixture so on the slope. The interval between strips that it is applied together with the seeds, depends on the type of soil, e.g., erosive water and any soil conditioner that may be ones require shorter interval. added. jute netting has been found to be more Dragging.-A pole or sapling is dragged effective than wire netting. In terms of on the fill slope with the intention of rough- cost, this material is less expensive than FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Page 57 wire nets. It can easily be laid on the entire area of the cut or fill slope (Fig. 5). Experiments have proven that jute nets last long enough until the seeds germinate. A similar operation is practiced in Japan. Instead of using jute nets, however, a straw matting is laid on the slope and secured with straw rope and bamboo pins. SIGNIFICANCE OF ROAD SLOPE STABILIZATION MEASURES The Philippines is certainly not free from the problem of soil erosion. There is even reason to believe that some of the local situations are worse on account of heavy rainfall. Landslides and other causes of road damage occur now and then, especially in rough and steep locations where the soil originated from an inherently erosive parent material, e.g., acidic granite. It is then necessary to use the right slope ratios, to install the proper drainage structures, and to provide retaining walls. With highly-erosive soils, however, these may not be adequate. Studies and experience have shown that the restoration or establishment of a vegetative cover is the ultimate measure to effectively prevent excessive sudace runoff and erosion that normally prevail under severe topographic and climatic conditions. Road construction is admittedly one of the causes of watershed damage. Earthwork normally involves a lot of soil disturbance. Sediment coming from roads contributes to the siltation of streams, lakes, dams, and other water reservoirs. Macid Y. Gulcur of Turkey, FAO Watershed Management Expert, recently stated that approximatley 5 million cubic meters of top soil are washed down the Ambuklao Dam every year ( 3). Page 58 Roads, being the best known medium of transportation and communication, are absolutely necessary for the socio-economic progress of the Philippines. The government and the private sector, particularly the lumber industry, are and will continue building roads. Yet, some undesirable effects of road construction to other values are known. Against this background, slope stabilization measures can go a long way in making road construction both economically and socially feasible even under unfavorable conditions. LITERATURE CITED 1. CRADDOCK, George W. and C. Kenneth Pearse. Sudace Runoff and Erosion on Granitic Mountain Soils of Idaho as Influenced by Range Cover, Soil Disturbance, Slope, and Precipitation Intensity. Washington, D.C., August 1938. 24 pp. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular No. 482). 2. HAUPT, Harold F. A Method of Controlling Sediment From Logging Roads. Ogden, Utah, June 1959, 22 pp. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Misc. Pub. No. 22). 3. J ARAN ILLA, Lourdes. The Ambuklao Watershed. In: The Sunday Times Magazine, September 13, 1964. pp. 28-29. 4. MORDENO, Angelo G. Drainage of Logging Roads. In: Forestry Leaves, Yol. XV, No. 1, Moving-Up Day Issue ( 1964). p. 1-18. 5. NITTA, Shinzo. A New Seeding Method for Steep Slopes. In: Unasylva, Vol. 16 (2), No. 65 (1962). pp. 59-62. 6. U.S. FOREST SERVICE. Grass Seeding on Unstable Road Fills. Zena Creek Logging Study, Payette National Forest, Idaho, January 5, 1961. 11 pp. (Administrative Study Report No. 2). FORESTRY LEAVES Bag And Wrapping Papers From B Pin (Pin I ul . E di ) PANCRACIO v. BAWAGAN, By enguet e us ns ar1s n . JAIME o. EscOLANO, AND LAURO A. YNALVEZ1 (For Publication) ABSTRACT Benguet-pine pulpwoods from the Mountain Province, Luzon, Philippines, measuring about 20 cm. in diameter, were pulped to a pulp permanganate number of 27.4 by the kraft-process conditions of (a) 15 percent NaOH and 5 percent Na 0 S, based on the moisture-free weight of the wood chips and ( b) 1.5 hours temperature rise from room temperature to l 70<>C and maintained for another 1.5 hours at l 70<>C. Data on the chemical analysis of Benguetpine wood, pulp yield ( 48.9 percent) and pulp-handsheet test showed its promising paper-making potentialities. The wood was low in lignin and average in holocellulose as compared to American softwoods. It was further shown that good-quality bag and wrapping papers could be produced from Benguet pine. INTRODUCTION A suitable commercial source of longfibered raw material for pulping and paper· making in the Philippines has long been a problem of many possible solutions but are ultimately controlled by economic feasibility. Benguet pine, with a fiber length of 3.45 mm. ( 6) 2, is among the promising raw materials for paper pulp manufacture in the Philippines. 1 Assistant Chief Forest Products Technologist, Senior Forest Products Technologist, and Chief Forest Products Technologist, respectively, Chemical Investigations Division, Forest Products Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines. 2 Unde~cored numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited at the end of this paper. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE From November 10, 1952 to April 11, 1953, Mr. S. Bugge ( 2), who was a member of the United Nations Technical Assistance Administration ( T AA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization ( F AO) Pulp and Paper Survey Mission to the Philippines, surveyed the Benguet pine forests in Mountain Province. Luzon. The mission concluded that there was not enough accessible Benguet pine for any sulfate or kraft pulp mill along Chico river or Abra river. It was mentioned, however, that Agno river could theoretically transport from some large stands, comprising about 2 to 3 million cubic meters of timber in the subprovince of Benguet where the greater part of the area was already under exploitation by various mining companies and sawmills. More recently, about 11 years after that survey, the conditions probably have improved becausf' a group of Filipino capitalists has considered the feasibility of putting up a 200 to 300-ton kraft pulp and paper mill to utilize Benguet pine, with some hardwoods supplement, in a 175,000hectare forest concession in Mountain Province. The mill start-up is expected in 1968, i.e., 15 years after the survey was made by Bugge This present paper deals with the production of bag and wrapping papers from Benguet pine, grown in Mountain Province, Luzon, Philippines, by the kraft process. EXPERIMENTAL Wood Material Used The Benguet-pine pulpwoods, with an average diameter of 20 cm., were obtained from the forest concession of Heald Lumber Page 59 Company, Mountain Province. Growth-ring counts averaged 30 for a 20-cm. diameter log3• The proximate chemical-analysis data of the species are given in Table I. After slicing the debarked wood belts into suitable sizes, they were chipped in a semi-commercial, 6-knife Summer chipper driven by a 150-hp motor, to produce 1.59cm. ( 5/8-inch) chips which were screened on a Williams chip classifier. The chips used were those passing through the 2.54cm. opening screen and retained on the 1.27-cm. opening screen. Kraft Pulping and Papermaking Digestions of the chips were conducted in a 22.7-liter capacity (0.8 cubic foot}, stainless steel, steam jacketed and cylindrical digester, mounted to tumble one revolution per minute. The kraft-pulping condition used is as follows: Chemical charged (based on moisturefree chips) : Sodium hydroxide, percent . . . . 15 Sodium sulfide, percent . . . . . . . . 5 Cook schedule: Time from room temperature to maximum temperature ( 1 7 0 deg. C), hours .............. 1.5 Time at 170 deg. C, hours .... 1.5 Liquor to wood ratio (moisture in wood chips is accounted for), liter/kg. . ....................... 4.1 Three pulping trials were made with the above condition. No pulping-variable study was made. The pulp, after washing, were screened with the use of an 8-out screen plate, i.e., screen plate with 0.2002-cm. ( 0.008-inch) slot openings. 3 Growth rings do not necessarily represent annual growth rings. Page 60 Standard test handsheets of 7 4 grams per square meter basis weight were prepared and tested according to the U.S. Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry ( T APPi) standard methods ( 5). In papermaking, a paper machine with 21.6-cm. ( 8.5-inch) trim and speed of 1.0 to 2.5 meters per minute was employed. For every paper machine run, approximately 1.5 kilograms (oven-dry weight) of pulp were used. One percent resin size and two percent alum, based on the oven-day weight of pulp, were appropriately mixed with the pulp slurry, after the beating operation in a laboratory beater, to produce bag and wrapping papers. The physical tests of the wrapping papers were also conducted in accordance with the T APPi standard methods. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The proximate chemical analysis (Table 1), in percent, of the wood show desirably low lignin ( 26.16), alcohol-benzene extract (2.87), hot-water extract (1.09) for leached sample and (1.74) for unbleached samples, and ash (0.21), and high pentosan (11.12) and holocellulose (69.67). With this analysis as the basis, Benguet pine wood has lignin content comparable to the lowest for American softwoods, and about average for holocellulose but high for pentosan ( 4). As indicative of 27.4 pulp permanganate number (Table 2), the kraft-pulping condition employed seems appropriate for the production of unbleached papers. Generally, pulp with permanganate number over 20 is considered unbleachable grade. This is further substantiated by information on total pulp yield of 49.6 percent which would be around 45 percent for bleachable grade. The results on standard beater test and pulp-handsheets test (Table 3), show the papermaking potentialities of Benguet pine, with regards to burst factor, tear factor, FORESTRY LEAVES folds, and tensils strengths, which are typical of those produced from softwoods by the pulp and paper industry. Comparing these properties with those of the kraft pulp produced from U.S. southern ( shortleaf) pine (Pin us echinata) ( 3) , using, the same pulping condition (used for Benguet pine) in this study, the Benguet pine pulp is higher in burst, tensile and folding endurance but lower in tearing strength at two freeness levels of 450 and 250 cc. (Table 4). The properties of the experimental bag and wrapping papers as well as those of commercial kraft wrapping and bag papers, and the U.S. Federal Specifications (1) for kraft wrapping Grades A and B, and Class A, heavy-duty shipping sack kraft paper, are given in Table 5. It is shown that the wrapping paper from Benguet pine is very much superior, in all strength properties indicated, than the commercial wrapping papers tested at the Institute. The same experimental paper meets the U.S. Federal Specifications for Grades A and B kraft wrapping. The experimental bag paper is comparable to the commercial bag papers tested at the Institute. Furthermore, it meets the requirements for Class A, heavy-duty sack kraft paper. Compliments of RCO ENTERPRISES RUFINO C. 0rERO Concessionaire-Proprietor Sta. Josefa, Agusan 222 Juan dela Cruz, Davao City FORESTRY DAY ISSUE CONCLUSION In this limited study, Benguet-pine pulpwood from Mountain Province, Luzon, Philippines, by the kraft process, has produced good quality bag and wrapping papers and, therefore, would be a desirable longfibered raw materials. LITERATURE CITED 1. Anonymous. 1960. UU-P2690. Kraft wrapping paper untreated. 1958. UU-S-48c. Paper shipping sacks Federal specifications. Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A. 2. Bugge, S. 1955. The development of the pulp and paper industry in the Philippines. Technical Annex No. 5. United Nations Technical Assistance Administration, Food and Agriculture, Organization of the United Nations, New York. 3. Martin, J. S. and K. J. Brown. 1952. Effect of bark on yield and quality of sulphate pulp from Southern pine. T APPi 35(1): 7-10. 4. Stamn, A. J. and E. E. Harris. 195.'3. Chemical Processing of wood ( p. 7 4). Chemical Publishing Company, Inc. 212 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 5. Standard and Suggested Methods of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPP!), New York U.S.A. 6. Tamolang, F. N., Valbuena, R., Lomibao, B.A., Artuz, E.A. Kalaw, C. and A. Tofigacan. 1958. Fiber Dimensions of Certain Philippine Broadleaved and Coniferous woods, Palms, and Bamboo II. TAPP!, 41(10: 614-621. ARSENIO CARDINO Timber Licensee Calapan Oriental Mindoro Page 61 TABLE 1. Proximate chemical analysis af" Benguet-pine wood. (Figures in percent, based on oven-dry wood) Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 Alcohol-benzene extract . . . . . . . . . . . 2.87 Hot-water extract (leached) . . . . . . . . 1.09 Hot-water extract {unleached) . . . . . 1.74 Lidnin (corrected for ask) . . . . . . . . 26.16 Holocellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.67 Caustic soda (1% NaOH) extract .. 14.12 Pentosan 11.12 TABLE' 2. Pulping data on Benguet pine. Cock Nos. . ....................................................... 2174, 2175 & 2176 Sodium hydroxide, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Sodium sulfide, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Cooking schedule: Time to max. temp. of 170"C, hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Time at max. temp., hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Chemicals consumed at Na.O: Based on original chemicals charged, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87.4 Based on O.D. material, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Pulp yield: a Screened, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48.9 Screenings or rejects, percent ....... . Total, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 7 Permanganate number of pulp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.4 a Based on moisture-free weight of chips. b Liquor to wood ratio was 4 to I. Page 62 FORESTRY LEAVES Cl ~ t'j CJ) ""'3 ~ t:I > ~ .... CJ) CJ) c:: t'j ~ ., QQ ~ a..... TABLE 3. Physical preperties of the Benguet pine sulfate pulp.c I I Time pro- I FreeI Tensile / Test Cook Sample Thick- \ Burst Tear Folds BrightNo. No. (species) I cessed I ness ness factor factor (double) (breaking I Density ness I (min.) (C)-cc. (mils) 1 M.I.T. length in / gm/cc ness I I meter) percent -=== - ==-o..--~-=-7=-=-:------=- - ~--=-----=-=-'------""'"'-=== 1466 2174, Benguet 0 765 9.4 9.9 125 3 2175 pine, sul& fate 30 705 4.9 65.7 163 668 2176 60 470 4.6 80.2 134 840 90 185 4.3 81.7 110 851 c Calculated values are expressed on moisture-free basis. Beating time Species TABLE 4. Comparison of the physical propertiesd of the sulfate pulps, made from Benguet pine and Southern (short leaf) pine". Freeness Bursting Tearing Tensile (Canadian strerigth resistance breaking standard) length I - - - --- -- --~- ---me~:--1 minutes ml. pts/lb/rm. gm/lb/rm. I = = . = - ----=-=~-=-= ---~----,.-===Benguet pine 62 450 1.52 1.73 11,2.'30 84 250 1.54 1.51 10,800 Southern (short 46 450 1.12 2.17 8,700 leaf) pine 59 250 1.22 2.02 9,000 d Values were obtained from the beater test culves. e Values from Benguet pine were converted to conform with the units of the Southern pine and are both expressed on conditioned-basis. Under the same pulping conditions used for Benguet pine in this study some pertinent results obtained by Martin and Brown ( 4) are the following: screened pulp yield48.5%; pulp rejects - 0.4%; and pulp permanganate No. - 23.5%. 2,140 0.31 26.3 10,640 0.59 11,860 0.65 11,120 0.70 Folding I Sheet endurance density (MIT) - - - - - double folds I gm./ cc. 845 0.70 850 0.73 420 0.68 460 0.70 .,, DO "" TABLE 5. Physical properties of the experimental kraft papers that were made from Bengue pine unbleached ~ ~ Machine Tearing resistance TensilP mn. No. strength Pulp Ream Thick- Den- Mui- factor M.D. T!'ar C.D. M.D. Break- Fold- Porofree- weight ness sir Ien Burst M.D. + factor + ing ing sity Test Type of paper ness (24x36- f C.D. f C.D. length endur ( GurNo. (Cana- 500) ance ley) dian std.) (MIT) ml. lbs. gms/sq.m mils gm/cc. psi gms. gms. piw piw metl'rsdouble sec./ folds cc air ~~--o=----=--:-~-~-~-=---;=...-=----c=--=.-===--:"- -:-: -:: 662 643 Wrapping ( experimental) 350 40.8 62.4 4.1 0.€0 34.7 39.l 85 184 148 14.8 41.9 6000 267 21 Commercial kraft wrapping (average of 8 samples) g - 40.l 60.8 3.6 0.68 27.7 32 .. '3 82 172 130 11.8 30.7 4440 240 31 U.S. Federal specifications for kraft - wrapping, Grade-A 35.0 ~ - - 32.0 - 85 170 Grade-B 40.0 ·- - - 28.0 - 75 150 663 645 Bag (experimental) 350 49.9 76.4 5.2 0.58 47.0 43.2 110 250 164 18.2 56.6 6610 354 14 Commercial bag papers (average of 13 samples) g 50.0 76.0 4.8 0.62 48.7 45.4 106 223 148 17.2 51.9 6150 428 43 a U.S. Federal speci~ ficalions for Class A, h e a v y - duty ~ shipping sack kraft ~ paper 50.0 - - - - - 110 235 - 19.0 53.0 E --~----:----·.,...--· - ---- ==----=--=-~ -:-=-:-.-= -·-~~-~-=- -· ---------f In calculating these values, the moisture-free weight of paper was used. ~ 1 These commercial papers were obtained from different sources and test!'d at the FPRI. ti> Causes Of Warping In Plywood Manni acture 1 INTRODUCTION Plywood enjoys a prime position as one of the basic materials in engineering constructions. The eminence of plywood over solid wood is attributed to its relative merits in distributed strength. reduced shrinkage and checking, high nail-holding capacity, and artistic appearance. Since plywood is an anisotropic material, it is subject to defects resulting from the mechanisms of shrinking and swelling. This condition in a plywood sheet is described as either twisting, cupping, or bowing; they are collectively called warping. The objectives of the study were to determine the effects of grain orientation, short grain, species difference, ply thickness, moisture content of plies, and double pressing on the severity of warping in plywood. Warping is one of the defects which result in degrade or rejection of panels, particularly in plastic-faced panels having a core of plywood ( 17), although their natural appearance and glue bond quality are satisfactory. This problem shows the need of determining the specific causes of warping in a plywood panel. REVIEW OF LITERATURE A warped panel has been described by Brouse ( 12) 2 as one whose surf ace is not in a single plane or if, when it is laid in a true plane, a portion of the panel does 1 This paper is a condensation of a thesis submitted to the Faculty of the State University of New York College of Forestry at Syracuse University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. 2 Number inside the parenthesis refers to literature cited. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE ARMANDO A. VILLAFLOR Assistant Professor, Department of Forest Utilization Engineering, College of Forestry Universi,ty of the Philippines not touch the flat surface. Brouse reported that with thin panels, a difference of 5° in the direction of grain of opposing crossbands has caused noticeable twisting. Plywood with 45° construction was reported by Meyer ( 21) to be more subject to warping than plywood of standard construction. Panels with their faces, backs, and crossbands coming from different species are more likely to warp than when they are made from a single species as a result of variations in their anatomical features ( 12,22) and strength properties ( 21 ) . Cupping was found in 3-ply plywood whose faces and backs were unequal in thickness, density, shrinkage characteristics and modulus of elasticity ( 1). Norris ( 22) reported that a difference of 5 percent moisture content among the veneers of plywood less than 3/10-inch in thickness may cause serious cupping. Pillow ( 23) reported that tension wood influenced warping in 1/16-inch veneers; buckling and splitting appeared on thinner veneers. The presence of compression wood ( 8) in either face of back may cause excessive warping in plywood. Brouse ( 12) further reported that some errors in handling may cause plywood to warp, such as drying more rapidly from one face than from the other, use of a finish highly resistant to the movement of moisture on one side of the panel and not on the other, fastening the panels firmly to supporting members of different shrinkage characteristics, and use in instalPage 65 lations where one side is exposed to the air at different relative humidities than the other. MATERIALS AND DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT Nature of the Species American basswood ( Tilia sp.) and sugar maple (Acer sacharrum Marsh) were the two hardwood species used in the study. The properties ( 4) of basswood and sugar maple compared with some Philippine woods (2, 25) are shown in Table 1. The application of the method reported by Sass ( 26) using a staining solution of chloroiodide of zinc and comparison of the unstained sections with the work of Marra (20) revealed that the sugar maple log was normal wood. There was no microscopic examination conducted on basswood. TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF BASSWOOD AND SUGAR MAPLE COMPARED TO SOME PHILIPPINE WOODS I ' SPECIES E in I SHRINKAGE4 Moisture I Specific Content11 Gravity2 Bending3 I I Radial (Percent) I (l,000 psi) Tangential J (Percent) (Percent) BASSWOOD ( Tilia sp.) Mayapis (Shorea squamuta) White lauan5 (Pentacme contorta) Almon" ( Shorea almon) Red lauan (Shore a negrosensis) Bagtikan ( P arashorea plicata) Tanguile (Shore a polysperma) SUGAR MAPLE (Acer sacharrum) Toog ( Combretodendron quadrialatum) 105 140 80 100 98 107 93 58 84 0.32 0.37 .40 0.39 .46 .48 .47 .56 .61 1,040 5.58 3.96 1,240 5.4 2.0 1,253 6.2 3.1 1,400 6.8 2.8 1,270 4.4 2.0 1,730 4.5 1.9 1,480 5.1 2.3 1,550 3.70 2.94 1,620 8.06 3.16 1 Based on the oven dry weight. FPRI Tech. Note No. 16. 2 Based on the ratio of the oven dry weight and green volume. 3 Based on test at green condition; Luis Reyes; 1938, Philippine Woods, Tech. Bull. No. 7, Commonwealth of the Philippines, Deparbnent of Agriculture and CoIIJIIlerce, Manila. 4 Green to 12 percent moisture content. Shrinkage based on green dimension. ~Progress Report on the Survey of Mechanical Prcperties of Philippine Woods. Lumberman (Philippine), August-September. 1959. s E. Jaranilla, R. P. Saraos, A.P. Bati, and P. ~.f. Manzo. Toog for Veneer and Plywood Manufacture. Lumberman (Philippine), June-July, 1963. Rotary-Cutting and Veneer Preparation Basswood was rotary-cut without preheating into 1/8- and 1/16-inch veneers inasmuch as its optimum cutting temperature is 32°F. (3). Sugar maple was rotary-cut after preheating to 125°F. into 1/16-, 1/24-, and 1/32-inch veneers. The heating schedule was based on the studies of Maclean ( 19). The recommendations of Fleischer ( 16) in rotary-cutting with certain modifications ( 5, 6, 7) about the opPage 66 timum knife angles, vertical nosebar opening, and horizontal nosebar opening were followed. The procedure reported by Fleischer ( 15) in aligning the knife and the nosebar was considered. After clipping, the veneers were divided into two groups. One group was dried by species and thickness in a platen veneer dryer to 9 percent moisture content, while the other group was dried to 15 percent. The advantages derived from seFORESTRY LEAVES gregation by species and thickness were reported by Bethel ( 11) and Rasmussen ( 23). The prediction equation formulated by Chrishmer and Hart (14) was employed in determining the veneer drying times. The veneer-thickness drying time ratio reported by Bati and Moore ( 10) was used in calculating the drying times of veneers of different thickness but belonging to one species. In determining grain direction, scribe test ( 18) which is popularly used in lumber was dispensed with in favor of tearing inasmuch as it is more adopted and convenient to use in veneers. The physical properties of both species, particularly moisture content, shrinkage, and specific gravity were determined using the size of test piece recommended by Brown ( 13). A total of ninety, 3-ply, 1/ 4" x 18" x 18" panels were prepared to represent the variables under consideration; this included six replicates for every variable. The panels were clearly marked for proper identification. Table 2 showed the experimental variables. Film type phenol formaldehyde adhesive (Tego #2) was used in bonding plywood by hot pressing. A precautionary measure of stapling one edge of the assembly was adhered to in order to maintain as close as possible the orientation of the grain to its adjacent veneers. The glue manufacturer's recommended press time and platen temperature were foHowed in hot pressing ( 9) . Plywood Trimming, Conditioning, and Measurement of Warping To prevent the unbalanced effect of differential shrinkage resulting from moisture gradient, the plywood sheets were trimmed equally at their edges into 17 inch squares. Cupping and bowing were measured to the nearest thousandth of an inch by employing a dial gauge as shown in Figure 1. Twisting was measured by means FORESTRY DAY ISSUE of a dial gauge as shown in Figure 2. The first measurement of warping took place about an hour after trimming. Subsequent measurements were done in similar manner at 3, 9, and 15 percent equilibrium moisture contents (EMC). Values of average twisting, cupping, and bowing at 9 and 15 percent EMC's were used in determing the significance of the difference between the sample mean of a group of panels and the sample mean of the standard panels. Application of similar test to the data collected at 3 percent EMC was deemed unnecessary because of their very obvious difference in magnitude in comparison with the standard. The test of significance was carried out by using Student's t-test (27). RESULTS AND DICUSSIONS Standard Plywood The type of warping dominant in the standard panels at 9 and 15 percent moisture contents was cupping, while twisting appeared to be dominant at 3 percent moisture content. Comparison with the other groups of panels simulating other factors, the standard panels showed the slightest amount of warping, particularly at 9 percent. Its coefficient of variation in cupping at 3 percent EMC was the lowest; this was 10.4 percent. The result explained that there was greater uniformity in the magnitude of cupping from panel to panel within the group; the average was 0.050 inch. Effect af Grain Orientation Grain orientation from 0° to 20° in the face veneers was the most significant factor causing twisting in plywood. The formation of twisting was very serious at moisture content below 9 percent. The amount of twisting increased with the increase in grain deviation from the standard immediately after trimming as shown in Figure 3. A definite statement, however, cannot be made about the influence of grain orientation on twisting beyond 15° after condiPai?e 67 "'C .. ,. ,,, 80 TABLE 2. EXPERIMENT AL VARIABLES IN THE ASSEMBLY OF 3-PLY 1/ 4" x 17" x 17" PLYWOOD Plywood I Grain Angle Thickness Moisture Short Gra.in I Content Panels (Degree) Species1 (Inch) (Percent) (Degree) F c B F c B F c B F c B F c B Std" 0 () 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 g 9 g 0 0 0 G-5 5 () 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 g 0 0 0 G-10 10 () 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 9 0 () 0 G-15 15 () 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 9 () 0 0 G-20 20 0 0 M B ~l 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 9 0 0 0 GP-10 10 0 10 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 g 9 g () 0 0 GC-15 15 0 15 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 9 0 0 0 SG-5 0 () () M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 9 9 g 5 () () SG-10 () () () M B M l/lG 1/8 1/16 9 9 g 10 0 () M-B () () () M B M l/lG 1/8 l/lG 9 9 !:) () 0 () T-1/24 () () 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 l/lG 9 n 9 0 0 0 T-1/32 0 0 0 M B M l/lG 1/8 1/16 9 9 g 0 0 0 BC-15 () 0 0 M B M 1/16 1/8 1/16 15 1.3 15 () 0 0 FC-15 () 0 () M B M l;/16 1/8 1/16 9 15 !:) 0 0 () "l DP 0 (} 0 M B M 1/16 l,18 l/lG 9 9 ~) () 0 () 0 = tr1 r.n >-3 1 M- sugar maple, B - basswood. = ~ 2 S -- single pressing, D - double pressiw~ t"' 3 Control panels or standard panels, F-tace veneer, C-core veneer, B-back veneer. tr1 > ~ tr1 r.n Pressing Method2 s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s tioning the panels, in view of the disagreement of the results obtained on plywood with 20° grain orientation as shown in Figure 4. The mean difference of twisting between the standard panels and those with 5° grain orientation in their faces at 9 and 15 percent EMC were significant at 1.0 and 5.0 percent levels of probability, respectively, as shown in Table 3. This result confirmed the finding of Brouse ( 12) in an earlier investigation. Cupping and bowing as a function of grain orientation appear to follow curves which closely approximate Hankinson's equation as shown in Figure 5. This is explainable on the basis that the components of shrinkage and force in the major sheet directions are closely governed by Hankinson's formula. This controls the magnitude of the imbalance in face and back, and hence the degree of cupping and bowing. The reason twisting was plotted as a simple exponential curve as shown in Figure 3, is that twisting is in essence the result of simultaneous cupping and bowing which can only take place in a stiff sheet by twisting in the axis of the sheet. Twisting was observed in plywood with 10° grain orientation in face and back veneers in parallel alignment; this was very severe at 3 percent EMC as shown in Figure 6. At 9 percent, twisting attained its minimum. The result showed that cupping and bowing decrease with the increase in moisture content of the panel, this was not true for twisting after 9 percent EMC. TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS FOR THE COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENCE IN SAMPLE MEANS OF A GROUP OF PANELS FROM THE STANDARD PLYWOOD PANELS Plywood Panels Std G-5 D"P T-1/24 Std G-5 Std G-5 Std BC-15 FC-9 T-1/24 T-1/32 Std T-1/24 Type of I EMC I Number of Warping I 1 Samples Cupping Cupping Cupping Cupping Twisting Twisting Twisting Twisting Cupping Cupping Cupping Cupping Cupping Bowing Bowing 9 9 9 9 9 9 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 df 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N. S. - not significant at 5% probability le;·cl. S - significant at 5% probability level. S0 - significant at 1.0% probability level. The amount of twisting of plywood sheets with 15° grain orientation in both face and back veneers in opposite alignment was the most serious at 3 percent FORESTRY DAY ISSUE 0.021 .m~s . 141 .028 .001 .004 .001 .003 .042 .047 . 079 .053 .053 .044 .007 SS 10 ·6 90 838 725 448 1 31 6 17 2,421 2,852 1.541 4,056 125 13 9 t-value 0.722 15.570 2.375 5.480 2.285 J.376 3.205 0.748 1.194 3.495 Significance N.S . 50 s s N.S . so N.S. N.S. EMC; this was revealed by comparison with the other groups of panels as shown in Figure 6. Twisting decreases as the plywood sheets absorb moisture from 3 to Page 69 15 percent EMC; this was not true for cupping and bowing after 9 percent. Effect of Short Grain The severity of warping increased with an increase in the amount of short grain from 0° to 10° in the face veneers. The behaviour of twisting was very serious at 3 percent moisture content. Plywood with 5° short grain had an average twisting of 0.378 inch, while those with 10° short grain had an arnrage of 0.642 inch. This showed an increase of 70 percent in the magnitude of twisting from 5° to 10° as indicated in Figure 7. Effect of Species The use of different species with a large dissimilarity in specific gravity for faces and backs in plywood influenced the formation of cupping very significantly. The average magnitude of cupping in plywood with sugar maple face and basswood back, when plotted against EMC showed a large decrease from 3 to 9 percent as shown in Figure 8. The severity of cupping decreased with the absorption of moisture from 3 to 15 percent EMC. This behaviour, in certain respect, was not true for bowing, since it attained its maximum at 15 percent EMC. The result showed that cupping was predominant at the lower moisture content level, while bowing dominated at the upper moisture level. This result was in agreement with the finding of Norris ( 22) and Meyer ( 21 ) . Norris contended that faces and backs of different species responded differently to moisture changes because of inherent variations in their anatomical f e a t u re s. Mayer elaborated that they have also different properties, e.g. modulus of elasticity, so that one \vood is stronger than the other, and pulls the panel with a greater force when it shrinks than the other, and so causes the panel to warp. In this study, the specific gravities of sugar Page ;o maple and basswood were 0.576 and 0.367, respecitvely, based on the ovendry weight and volume at test. Effect of Thickness The construction of plywood from the same species with the thickness of the face veneer differing from the thickness of the back veneer caused serious cupping. Its severity increased as the thickness of the face of the panel was reduced from 1/16inch to 1/24-inch, and finally to 1/32-inch at 3 percent EMC. Cupping appeared to be at its minimum at 9 percent EMC as shown in Figure 8. The reduction in thickness of the face veneer resulted in the proportionate decrease in the effective force which the face veneer should have had in restraining the core from shrinking in comparison with the back veneer. This result was revealed in the research work conducted at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory (1 ). Effect of Moisture Content The gluing of veneers into plywood with the moisture contents of face veneer and back veneer differing by approximately 6 percent produced serious cupping. Figure 9 shows that cupping reached the maximum at 9 percent EMC. Cupping increased as the moisture content of the panel rose from 3 to 9 percent; this was in contrast with the standard with similar rise in moisture content. The severity, however, decreased with the further absorption of moisture from 9 to 15 percent; the minimum amount of cupping was attained at the latter moishire level. This result followed the finding of Norris ( 21). He reported that a difference of 5 percent moisture content among the veneers of 3-ply plywood less than 3/10inch thick at the time of gluing may cause serious cupping. Effect of Doub.1e Pressing Double pressing proved to be one of the factors which caused serious cupping. FORESTRY LEAVES The seriousness of its effect in the construction of flat plywood was vividly noted when the panels were conditioned at 9 percent EMC as shown in Figure 9. The severity of cupping appeared comparable with the standard at 3 and 15 percent EMC. The problem of panels sticking to each other resulting from bleed-thru in double pressing was not considered in view of the concentration of interest in the construction of flat plywood. The undesirable effect of bleed-thru in double pressing was eliminated in this study through the use of film type adhesive. CONCLUSIONS 1. Grain orientation from 0° to 20° in the face veneers, 10° in the face and the back veneers in parallel alignment, and 15° in the face and back veneers in opposite alignment was responsible in the formation of twisting in plywood. The amount of twisting below 9 percent increased very sharply in proportion to the magnitude of grain orientation. 2. The magnitude of short grain in degrees in the face veneers of plywood influenced the formation of twisting. It was very serious below 9 percent moisture content. 3. The use of different species with highly dissimilar specific gravity for the face and the back veneers in plywood caused serious cupping below 9 percent moisture content. 4. The severity of cupping was inversely proportional to the thickness of the faces with the thickness of the backs remaining constant. Serious cupping was obtained below 9 percent moisture content. 5. Approximately 6 percent moisture content difference among the veneers at the time of gluing of 1/4-inch, 3-ply plywood with 1/16-inch faces and backs, and 1/8-inch cores caused serious cupping at 3, 9, and 15 percent moisture contents. Cupping appeared to be at its maximum at 9 percent EMC. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE 6. Double pressing of plywood caused very serious cupping at 9 percent moisture content. The severity of cupping at 3 and 15 percent EMC was comparable with the standard panels. LITERATURE CITED 1. Anonymous. 1961. Manufacture and General Characteristics of Flat Plvwood. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report N·o. 543. 2. . 1961. Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood in Service. FPTII. Tee:hnical Note No. 17, College. Laguna, Philippines. 3. . 1960. Table of Optimum Lathe Settings and Log Temperature for Rotary Cutting Veneer. Forest Products Laboratories of Canada, Ottawa. 4. . l!J55. Wood Handbook. Agriculture Handbook No. 72. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. 5. . 1951. Veneer Cutting and Drying Properties: Hickory. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1766-6. 6. . 1960. Veneer Cutting and Drying Properties: Cottonwood. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1766-3. 7. . 1950. Veneer Cutting and Drying Prooerties: Water Oak. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1766-1. 8. . 1943. Compreession Wood. Importance and Detection in Aircraft Veneer and Plywood. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1586. 9. . n. d. Tego Resin Film. Rohm and Raas Co. The Resinous Products Divisoin. Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa. 10. Bati, A. P. and R. A. Moore. 1960. Drying of Mayapis Veneer in a Roller-type Veneer Dryer. Unpublished Paper. FPRI, College, Laguna, Philippines. 11. Bethel, J. E. 1960. Drying and Conditioning Veneer. North Carolina State College, School of Forestry, Tech. Btdl. No. 4, pp. 52-57. 12. Brouse, D. 1956. Some Causes of Warping in Plywood and Veneered Products. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1252. Page 71 13. Brown, H. P. et al. 1952. Textbook of Wood Technology. Vol. II. McGrawHill Book Co., New York, pp. 469-470. 14. Chrishmer, R. F. and C. A. Hart. A Prediction Equation for Veneer Drying Schedules. U.S. For. Prod. Journal 8 ( 4): 137-141. 15. Fleischer, H. 0. 1956. Instruments for Aligning the Knife and Nosebar on the Veneer Lathe and Slicer. U.S. For. Prod. Journal 6 (1): 1-5. 16. . 1949. Experiments in Rotary Veneer Cutting. For. Prod. Research Society Proceeding, 3; 137-15.'3. 17. Heebink, B. G. 1960. Importance of Balanced Construction in Plastic-faced Panels. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 2197. 18. Koehler, A. 1943. Guide to Determining Slope of Grai nin Lumber and Veneer. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1585. 19. Maclean. J. D. 1946. Rate of Temperature Change in Short-length Round Timbers. Transactions, A.S.M.E. 20. Marra, A. A. 1942. Characteristics of Tension Wood in Hard Maple (Acer PULP AND ( Continued fT'>m page 48) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS \Ve have presented some of the economic sacharrum Marsh). Unpublished Master's Thesis, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York. 21. ~foyer. L. H. 1947. Plywood: What It Is-What It Does. 1st ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, pp. 35-36. 22. Norris, C. B. 1942. Technique of Plywood. I. F. Laucks, Inc., Seattle, Washing pp. 149-177. 23. Pillow, W. Y. 1958. Effects of Tension Wood in Hardwood Lumber and Veneer. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. Report No. 1943. 24. Rasmussen, E. F. 1961. Dry Kiln Operator's Manual. Agriculture Handbook No. 188. U.S. For. Prod. Lab. 25. Reyes, L. 1938. Philippine Woods. Tech. Bull. No. 1. Commonwealth of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Manila. 26. Sass, J. E. 1940. Elements of Botanical Microtechnique. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, p. 101. 27. Snedecor, G. W. 1956. Statistical Methods Applied to Experiments in Agriculture and Biology. 5th ed. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 2. Escolano, J. 0. 1959. Production of bond and wrapping paper from Philippine woods, bamboos, and agricultural fibrous materials. Science Quarterly Digest 1 ( 1 ) ; 3-13. 3. Forestry in Japan. 1960. Forest Agency, Tokyo, f apan. and technological problems obtaining in our local pulp and paper industry. Suggested possible solutions to these problems, re- 4. search Institute and prospects of training 5. technicians of the pulp and paper industry Look Japan, July 10, 1963. Monsalud, M. R. and J. 0. Escolano. 1959 Kraft papers from Philippine fibrous ra,w materials. Forestry Leaves 11(:2): 21-27. are also presented. In conclusion, it is felt that the development and progress of the local infant pulp 6· and paper industry is vitally a national economic concern. Towards this goal, the work of the Institute is believed to be in 7. the right direction and a lot more could be done to push it forward with the joint cooperation of those concerned in nurturing our infant pulp and paper industry. 8. LITERATURE CITED 1. Bawagan, P. V. and J. 0. Escolano. 1962. Pulping and papermaking of naturnlly- 9. occuring mixtures of Philippine hardwoods The Lumberman (Phil.) 9( 1 ~ : 78-79, 81, 83. Page i2 Tamolang, F. N. et al. 1957. Fiber dimensions of certain Philippine broadleaved woods and bamboos. Tappi 40(8): 671676. ----. 1958. Fiber dimensions of certain Philippine broadleaved and coniferous woods, palms, and bamboos II. Tappi 41(10): 614-621. . 1960. Fiber dimensions of certain Philippine woods, bamboos, agricultural crops and wastes, and grassf':.. III. Tappi 43( 6) : 527-534. ----. 1962. Fiber dimensions of certain Philippine woods. agricultural wastes and other plants. Tappi 45(2): 135-142. J.<'ORESTRY LEAVES Fig. 1. A device used m measuring the amount of cupping and bowing in plywood sheet. 6C- IS-4B Fig. 2. A device used to measure the amoupt of twisting and the thickness of plywood sheet. - (/) i:..:i :i:: 0 z 1-1 - 0 z 1-1 E-1 (/) ~ µ.. 0 ~ Q :::> E-i ...... z ~ :::E 2.5 2.0 1.5 1. 0 0.5 0.0 0 5 10 15 GRAIN ORIENTATION (DEGREES) Figure 3. Curve of twisting as the grain orientation in faces of plywoods increased from o0 to 20° at 2. 48 percent moisture content (immediately after trimming). 20 ...... I s >< 00 i:.:i 200 n 150 z e 100 50 0 N' I s >< 00 i:.:i :i:: 0 a ~ ~ "" 0 ~ ~ i;: "" ::> 0 ~ 0 00 i:.:i 0 ::> E-< z ~ ::E \ Standard (Std) Grain Orientation 5 Degrees (G-5) . Grain Orientation 10 Degrees (G-10) " \ - - · · Grain Orientation 15 Degrees (G-15) \.... ' : : ·. -:--== Grun °"~"tioo 20 """"" (G-20} ~ \\, . \\ 3 "' ~ . ·.""'\\ "' ~". ""- .. 15 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT) Figure 4. Graphs of twisting in plywoods with 0, 5, 10'" lS ,,_ and 20 degrees grain crientation in their face veneers at ~ , 9, and 15 percent roM v. 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 GRAIN ORIENTATION (DEGREES) Figure 5. Curves of cupping and bowing in plywoods as the grain orientation in their faces increased from 0 to 20 degrees at 2. 48 percent moisture content (immediately after trimming) 20 ... 0 ~ ~ 300 200 ~ 100 0 - - N I 0 .... >< Cll ~ ::c: 0 z - - tj z - E-4 Cll ~ ..... 0 ~ 0 ::> E-4 - z ~ ::E 0 80 60 40 20 0 Standard (Std) Grain of face and back 10° parallel (GP-10) Grain of face and back 15° across (GC-15) 3 9 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT) Figure 6. Graphs of twisting in plywoods with oo grain orientation in veneers, 10° face and back running parallel, and 15° face and back running across at 3, 9, and 15 percent EMC. 0 5 10 SHORT GRAIN (DEGREES) 15 Figure 7. Curve of twisting in plywoods as short grain in their faces increased from 0 to 10 degrees at 2. 48 percent moisture content (immediately after trimming). 50 N' 40 I .3 30 20 10 0 16 "' I 3 x x l"l 12 :i:: {) z .e. G ~ Cl. 8 Cl. ::::> {) i:.. 0 l"l Ci ::::> 4 ~ z ~ ~ 0 0 \ -·\' -··.. \-···""\\ . '\\ Standard (Std) Species Difference (M-B) Face 1/32-inch (T-1/32) Face 1/24-inch (T-1/24) ""'-- ~·"'·~ -~ ~\. - '\: . --. ~ .. ::;;.:.-. '_, ·-·-· ·9 ~ EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT) Figure 8. Graphs of cupping in plywoods with 1/16-inch sugar maple faces and 1/16-inch basswood backs, 1/32-, 1/24-, and 1/16-inch sugar maple faces and 1/16-inch sugar maple backs at 3, 9, and 15 percent EMC. 3 9 Standard (Std) Face & Core 9% (FC-9) Back & Core 15% (BC-15) Double Pressing 15 • EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (PERCENT) Figure 9. Graphs of cupping in plywoods with face, core, and backs, 9 percent; back and core, 15 percent, face, 9 percent; face and core, 9 percent, back, 15 percent, at the time of gluing; and double press plywoods at 3, 9, and 15 percent EMC. 'llCJllPITSIDEllln_s1MPLE PITS LlllRIJORM FIBER FIBER TRACKED 1.nBBJl. SPIRAL THICUKIN6 a.UY Tll.A.CHEIDS 1'i9. t. SOPTWOODS (h) 14!f f14rsnc!iymt1 Ca) Y~rfic4/ p1rencltym4 ~.PARBNCHYMATOtJS CJr.LLS SCALAIUFORM PERPORATIOIJI SPIRAL THICl(!NI 'O~ ~q~·· ~ '·~ 0 .. . . (6)R4!f parencllpn8 (ti) Vsrf1(:4/ JMrenc,+gm4 .f:. PA.lllNCHYMATOUS CELLS ODLONe a. VESSZLB l"ig. 2. HARDWOODS FPRI TECHNICAL liOTI:. Ki;>. 99 After the soil has been built up by the planted "cover crop'', the desired timber species are underplanted. After the underpianted timber species have gained a foothold and established themselves, the ipilipil or kakawate trees are cut and used for fuelwood. Thus, their purpose is twofold: to improve the site conditions and to have a crop of fuel for use in tobacco barns. This approach which is apparently successful in the Ilocos Sur project can be tried in other places. It should be pointed out here that this approach should be resorted to only in sites characterized by severe conditions. It should not be done in areas that are quite favorable to the commercial species. In the latter, the desired commercial species may be planted immediately without going through the expensive and time consuming planting of "cover crops". LITERATURE CITED 1. Baja, H. A. 1962. The Reforestation Administration: its functions, responsibilities, and problems. Mimeographed copy of a talk delivered in the Youth Camp Supervisor's ( EEA) Training Course held at the Boy Scout Jam"To Insure Perpetuity of Our Forests Observe Religiously Selective Logging Method Under Sustained Yield Management" SARMIENTO ENTERPRISES, INC. Head Office: Metropolitan Theater Building Plaza Lawton, Manila Tel. Nos. 3-14-93 3-14-94 3-14-95 MANAGERS OF: SARBO & CO., INC. PLARIDEL LUMBER CO., INC. L. S. SARMIENTO & CO., INC. PLARIDEL COMMERCIAL & CO., INC. Concessioners and Timber Licenses Producers and Exporters of: PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY LOGS AND LUMBER Manufacturers and Exporters of: PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY VENEER AND PLYWOOD FORESTRY DAY ISSUE boree site, Mt. Makiling, Laguna, on October 18 1962. 2. Baker, F. S. 1960. Principies of Silviculture. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York. 3. Clements, F.E. 1916. Plant Succession: an analysis of the development of vegetation. Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication No. 242. Gibson Brothers. Washington. 4. Cunanan, C. 1962. Reforestation in the Philippines. Unpublished. 5. Geiger, R. 1959. The Climate Near the Ground. A translation by M.N. Stewart and Others. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 6. Storer, J.H. 1962. The Web of Life. The Devin-Adair Company. New York. 7. Tourney, J.W. and C.F. Korstian. 1947. The Foundation of Silviculture. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York. 8. Tourney, J.W. and C.F. Korstian. 1948. Seeding and Planting in the Practice of F orestn;. A manual for the guidance of Forestry students, foresters, nurserymen, forest owners, and farmers. 3rd ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York. 9. Viado, J. 1963. Annual Report of the administrator, Reforestation Administration. Diliman, Quewn City. Compliment of INDUSTRIAL LUMBER COMPANY Dealers of Quality Lumber M:igugpo, Tagurn, Davao Page 73 NOW IT CAN BE TOLD by MANUEL MoNSALuo Director, F.P.R.I. ColT.ege, Laguna Now it can be told! The Bureau of Patents granted on August 20, 1964 a Letters Patent to Lauro Ynalvez, Chief of the Chemical Investigations Division of the Forest Products Research Institute for his preparation of an adhesive forming composition from very cheap materials that occur in abundance in many regions of the Philippines. This formulation is suitable for use as binder in the manufacture of particleboard and plywood. This glue is waterproof. This material is given the tecnhical name of tanpowderflourdust. It is derived from the dust of coconut husk or from the barks of kamachile, ipil-ipil, bakauan, taiigal and other wood species. This invention by the Forest Products Research Institute is of great economic significance to the country, particularly to the coconut and logging industries. At present, the particleboard and plywood industries of the Philippines use a lot of dollars in importing the glues or binders that they utilize, namely, ureaformaldehyde, resorcinol, malemine, phenolic and other adhesive materials. The foregoing invention, however, makes use of materials usually thrown away as waste, thereby possibly effecting great savings in foreign exchange, if this discovery of the Forest Products Research Institute is properly exploited. Barks of trees are usually left nut utilized in the logging areas and sawmills. Coconut husk is also a great waste of the coconut industry. The billions of nuts being harvested and the hundreds of thousands of logs cut annually in the Philippines mean a reat quantity of raw materials from which the tanpowderflourdust can be prepared. In this connection, therefore, the Institute is in"iting local capitalist-entrepreneurs who may desire to avail themselves of this new discovery, the preparatoin of water-proof adhesive to meet the growing local demand. The Forest Products Research Institute has led the way and opened the path, so to speak. Now the private sector is invited to take over or to exploit this invention. Department of Public Works and Communications BUREAU OF POSTS Manila SWORN STATEMENT (Required by Act 2580) The undersigned, CELSO P. DIAZ, Bus. Manager of FORESTRY LEAVES, published quarterly, in English, at College, Laguna, after having been du1y sworn in accordance with law, hereby submits the following statement of ownership, management, circulation, P.tc., which is required by Act 2580, as amended by Commonwealth Act No. 201. N a m e Address Editor: ANACLETO DULDULAO ........................... College, Laguna Business Manager: CELSO P. DIAZ .......................... College Laguna Owner: U. P. COLLEGE OF FORESTRY .................... College, Laguna Publisher: STUDENT BODY & ALUMNI, College of Forestry .... College, Laguna Printer: JMC PRESS, INC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Quezon Blvd. Ext., Q. C. Office of Publication: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . College, Laguna In case of publication other than daily, total nwnber of copies printed and circulated of the last issue dated December 17, 1963; 1. Sent to paid subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 2. Sent to others than paid subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 T o t a 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l,000 (Seo.) CELSO P. DIAZ Business Manager SUBSCRIBED AND SWORN to before me this 30th day of March, 1964 at Manila, the affiant exhibiting his Residence Certificate No. A-3952043 issued at Los Banos, Laguna, on March 30, 1964. (Seo.) GENARO V. CAT ALAN Mayor, Los Baiios, Laguna NOTE: This form is exempt from the payment of documentary stamp tax. ACT 2580 REQUIRES THAT THIS SWORN STATEMENT BE FILED WITH THE BUREAU Of' POSTS ON APRII. 1 AND OCTOBER 1 OF EACH YEAR. Page 74 FORESTRY LEAVES Wood Anatomy Of Philippine Red Mahogany And By I. T. Zamuco, B. C. de Vela, Y. U. Rohillos, and J. A. Meniado1 Shorea Teysmanniana The term "Philippine mahogany" is a trade name applied to wood, consisting of the softer species of Shorea that are light colored to reddish brown, certain species of Parashorea and Pentacme of the family Dipterocarpaceae. Philippine mahogany is further subdivided into two classes, namely: (a) Philippine red mahogany which consists of tangile ( Shorea polysperma [Blanco] Merrill) red lauan (S. negrosensis Foxworthy), tiaong ( S. agsaboensis Stern) ( ined. 1 October 1964); and ( b) light red Philippine mahogany which comprises almon (Shorea almon Foxworthy) mayapis (S. squamata Dyer), bagtikan (Parashorea plicata Brandis), and white lauan (Pentacme contorta [Vidal] Merrill and Rolfe) and P. mindanensis Fo~worthy. Tiaong is the only member of the group whose identity was in doubt until very recently For over 50 years, tiaong was known in Philippine botanical and forestry literature as Shorea tysmanniona Dyer ex Brandis (Merrill 1923 and Reyes 1923, 1938). Available herbarium specjmens of tiaong had always been sterile; this and the lack of sufficient, well-documented material had frustrated its accurate identification. In 1938 1 iMembers of the research staff, Forest Products Research Institute, University of the Philippines, College, Laguna. They are deeply indebted to Dr. William L. Stem, FAO Forestry Advisor (Wood Technology) for his full cooperation and invaluable assistance, and to Forester Rodrigo R. Valbuena, Chief of the Wood Technology Division of the Philippine Forest Products Research Institute for his advice and review of this paper. Thanks are accorded to Messrs. Regino Gonzales Jr. and Teofilo Cruz in the preparation of the photomicrographs. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Foxworthy summed up the available information and concluded that " ... the wood seems to be slightly lighter and softer than that of tangile and the stipules seem to be larger, but these differences may not be constant; it seems best to consider the form known as tiaong as belonging to this species." Tamesis and Aguilar 1953) considered Foxworthy's opinion on the identity of tiaong but in their own work on Philippine mahogany, they preferred to treat it separately from tangile as an unknown species because of the differences in the tree and in the wood. The first published use of S. polysperma (Blanco) Merrill forma tiaong Foxworthy, as a scientific name for tiaong appeared in Salvosa's (1963) Lexicon of Philippine trees. Late in September 1963, Dr. William L. Stern, FAO Forestry Advisor (Wood Technology) and Forester Justo P. Rojo of the Philippine Forest Products Research Institute, visited the Province of Agusan in Mindanao where foresters of the Nasipit Lumber Company had reported tiaong to be in fruit. Adequate botanical specimens of this tree together with S. polysperma and S. negrosensis were collected. Studies incorporated in Stern and Zamuco's identity of tiaong. Dipterocarpaceate, in press, showed that this tree ( tiaong) from Mindanao is a new species of the Philippine red mahogany which Stern (in Stern and Zamuco 1964) described under the name Shorea agsaboensis Stern. Stern and Zamuco also demonstrated that all sterile collections which they examined, and which were labelled as tiaong from Page 75 Luzon, comprised either S. polysperma or S. negrosensis. They also concluded that the combination S. polysperma forma tiaong is invalid and should no longer be used. An investigation of the wood anatomy of the Philippine red mahogany group was performed ta search for further criteria to differentiate the species incorporation of this study of S. teysmanniana Dyer, a species of Indo-Malaysia, was thought desirable to enable comparison of its structure with Philippine species, especially tiaong, with which it had for so long been confused. Reyes (1923, 1938), who described the wood of S. negrosensis, S. polysperma, the controversial tiaong, and the rest of the Philippine mahoganies, pointed out their close anatomical resemblances. Brazier and Franklin ( 1961) described S. tysmanniana Dyer as having large, radial intercellular secretory canals commonly occupying the full width of the ray. They also mentioned that crystals were of ten present in the enlarged cells or idioblasts of rays. Materials studied and associated collection data are listed in Table 1. Representative samples are limited to recently collected, well-documented material which provide bases for comparison. Wood specimens and microscope slides of S. tysmanniana Dyer were made available by Dr. Stern from Mr. P. K. Balan Menon of the Forest Research Institute, Kepong, Malaysia. Table 1. List of species examined. Species Collector Origin Field or Location of catalogue No. vouchers S. agsaboensis Stern Stem & Rojo Agusan, Phil. 2102 CLP0 s. negrosensis Foxw. Stern & Rojo Agusan, Phil. 2099 CLP s. Polysperma ( Blco.) Merr. Stern & Rojo Agusan, Phil. 2101 & 2120 CLP s. teysmanniana Dyer Sudin Selangor Indo, 3041, 2654 & KEP00 Malaysia 2823 "Forest Products Research Institute herbarium, College, Laguna (Philippines). 0 ° Forest Research Institute herbarium, Kepong (Malaysia). The outline for the macroscopic description of the woods was patterned after the works of Dadswell, et al. ( 1947) and the Forest Products Research (1960). In the microscopic description, the terms used conform with that of the International, glossary of terms used in describing woods (Committee on Nomenclature, International Association of Wood Anatomists 1957). The lengths of vessel elements and fiber dimensions were determined from macerated material by the use af acetic acidhydrogen peroxide by Franklin ( 1946). The total length of a vessel element reckoned Page 76 from tip to tip (Chalk and Cattaway 1934), is adopted as the most meaningful measure. Expressions of numerical data are in accordance with those approved by the Council of the International Association of Wood Anatomists (1939) as published in their Standard terms of size for vessel diameter and ray width as proposed by Chalk ( 1938). Other standards used are those cited in Cattaway's (1932) Proposed stu11dards for numerical values used in describing woods. These standard have been consolidated in the Standards and procedures for descriptions of dicotyledonous woods by FORESTRY LEA \'ES Tamolang, et al. 1963) and will serve as guide for the study of wood anatomy of Philippine trees. Data given in this study are only intended for descriptive purposes. SHOREA AGSABOENSIS STERN 1\1 acroscopic General.-Heartwood is light red to reddish; sapwood is lighter in color and contrasted sharply with the heartwood; growth rings are indistinct; texture is moderately coarse; match-sized splinters burn to ash; frothing test negative. Pores are few, intermediate in size and visible to the naked eye; solitary pores . are rounded or slightly oval, occasionally in radial multiples of 2 to 3, sometimes in oblique chains of 3 to 5; tyloses are common; perforation plates are simple. Axial parenchyma is slightly aliform, very narrow vasicentric and diffuse. Vascular rays are narrower than pores as seen in transverse section; haterocellular. Fibers are dense.2 Axial resin canals are in short concentric arcs and filled with white oxidized resin. Microscopic Growth rings are indistinct. Vessels are few to moderately few, 3 to 6 (av. 4) per sq. mm.; solitary pores are round to oval about 87 per cent, with radial multiples of 2 to 3 about 11 per cent, and clusters of 2 per cent, fom1ing an oblique pattern; medium-sized to moderately large, 189 to 278 microns in tangential diameter, mostly moderately large 211 to 244 microns (av. 227 microns); vessel element length is mediumsized, 467 to 733 microns, mostly 556 to 678 microns (av. 634 microns); perforation plates are simple with horizontal or slightly inclined end walls; intervascular pitting is alternate and pits are indistinctly vestured; tyloses are present. Axial parenchyma is slightly aliform; strand parenchyma is commonly of 4 cells; rhomboidal crystal is rare and was observed in an idioblast. Vas2 The terms dense and loose are used to describe fibers when the lumina are not visible, and visible under a hand lens, respectively. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE cular rays are moderately numerous to numerous, 6 to 10 per mm.; heterocellula1 multiseriates, with 1 to 2 or more rows of marginal cells composed of square to upright cells or uniseriate tails shorter than multiseriate part of ray, usually 3 to 4 cells wide, very fine to medium-sized, 22 to 67 microns wide (most frequent range, 33 to 44 microns and extremely low to low, 0.32 to 1.67 mm. high, predominantly 0.51 to 0.78 mm.; uniseriate rays are few, composed of square to upright cells and sometimes with procumbent cells, extremely fine to moderately fine, 11 to 28 microns, most frequent range 11 to 22 microns wide, and 4 to. 16 cells high, predominantly 4 to 12 cells, often filled with deposits; crystals were not observed; ray-vessel pits are simple, alternate and rounded to elongated. Fibers (libriform) are medium-sized to moderately long 0.93 to 1.85 mm., most frequent range 1.31 to 1.52 mm. (av. 1.38 mm.); thin-walled (av. 4.5 microns); lumen (av. 16 microns) is greater than thickness of waIIs, average diameter is 25 microns; nonseptate. V asicentric tracheids are present. Resin canals are axial and arranged in short tangential series. SHOREA NEGROSENSIS FOXWORTHY Macroscopic General. - Heartwood is reddish brown; sapwood is lighter and marked off than the heartwood; growth rings are indistinct; texture is moderately course; match-sized splinters burn to charcoal; frothing test is negative. Pores are few, intermediate in size and visible to the naked eye; solitary pores are rounded, occasionally in radial multiples of 2 to 3, sometimes in oblique pairs; tyloses are present; perforation plates are simple. Axial parenchyma is slightly aliform, narrow vasicentric, and also diffuse. Vascular rays are narrower than pores as seen in transverse section; heterocellular Fi.bers are dense. Axial resin canals are numerous in concentric arcs and filled with white oxidized resin. Page , , Microscopic Growth rings are indistinct. Vessels are very few to few, 2 to 4 (av. 3) per sq. mm.; solitary pores are round to oval about 79 per cent, with radial multiples of 2 to 3 about 19 per cent, and clusters of 2 per cent forming an oblique pattern; medium-sized to very large, 122 to 333 microns in tangential diameter, predominantly and moderately large, 233 to 278 microns (av. 259 microns); vessel element length is from medium-sized to moderately long, 456 to 933 microns, mostly 722 to 844 microns (av. 7 43 microns); pedoration plates are simple and with horizontal or slightly inclined end walls; intervascular pitting is alternate, small, and pits are indistinctly vestured. Axial parenchyma is narrow alif orm; strand parenchyma is commonly of 4 cells; rhomboidal crystals are rare to absent commonly in idioblasts. Vascular rays are moderately numerous, 6 to 8 per mm.; heterocellular multiseriates with 1 to 3 rows of marginal cells composed of square to upright cells or uniseriate tails shorter than multiseriate part of ray, 3 to 4 cells wide, usually 3 cells wide, moderately fine to medium-sized, 33 to 67 microns wide (most frequent range, 33 to 55 microns), and extremely low to low. 0.27 to 1.82 mm. high, predominantly 0.50 to 1.33 mm.; uniseriate rays are few, usually composed of square to upright cells and some procumbent cells, extremely fine to moderately fine, 11 to 33 microns wide, predominantly 22 microns, and 2 to 13 cells high, predominantly 2 to 10 cells; often filled with deposits; ray-vessel pits are simple and rounded to elongated. Fibers ( libriform) are medium-sized to very long, 1.19 to 2.27 mm., predominantly 1.46 to 1.90 mm. (av. 1.70 mm.); thin-walleu \av. 4.5 microns); lumen (av. 25 microns) is greater than thickness of walls; average diameter is 34 microns; non-septate. V asicentric tracheids are present. Resin canals are axial and arranged in tangential series. Page 78 SHOREA POLYSPERMA (Blanco ) Merrill Macroscopic General. - Heartwood is light red to reddish; sapwood is lighter and marked off from the heartwood; growth rings are indistinct; texture is moderately coarse; matchsized splinters burn to ash; frothing test is negative. Pores are few, intermediate in size and visible to the naked eye; solitary pores are rounded to slightly oval, occasionally in radial multiples of 2 to 3, with some oblique pairs; tyloses are present; pedoration plates are simple. Axial parenchyma is slightly alif orm, narrow vasicentric and also diffuse. Vascular rays are narrower than pores as seen in transverse section; heterocellular. Fibers are dense. Axial resin canals are in concentric arcs and filled with white oxidized resin. Microscopic Growth rings are indistinct. Vessels are very few to moderately few, from 2 to 8 (av. 4) per sq. mm.; solitary pores are round to oval about 82 percent, with radial multiples of 2 to 3 about 16 per cent, and clusters of 2 per cent forming an oblique pattern; medium-sized to moderately large from 122 to 244 microns in tangential diameter, most frequent range 167 to 211 microns (av. 192 microns); vessel element length is very short to medium-sized, 244 to 744 microns, mostly medium-sized, 428 to 561 microns (av. 490 microns); perforation plates rate simple with horizontal to slightly inclined end-walls; intervascular pitting is alternate and small, and pits are indistinctly vestured; tyloses are present. Axial perenchyma is sparse to fairly abundant, alif orm; strand parenchyma is commonly of 4 cells; rhomboidal crystals are rare, and in idioblasts. Vascular rays are few to numerous, 3 to 9 per mm.; heterocellular multiseriates with 1 to 3 rows or slightly more of marginal cells composed of square to upright cells or uniseriate tails shorter than multiseriate part of ray, 2 to 5 FORESTRY LEAVES cells wide, mostly 3 to 4, moderately fine to medium-sized 33 to 89 microns wide (most frequent range is 44 to 62 microns), and extremely low to low, 0.23 to 1.17 mm. high, predominantly 0.33 to 0.74 mm.; uniseriate rays are fev.', usually composed of square to upright cells but sometimes with procumbent cells, very fine to moderately fine, 22 to 3 microns wide and 3 to 12 cells high, mostly 4 to 8 cells; usually filled with deposits; crystals were not observed; elongated. Fibers (libriform) are mediumsized to very long from 1.11 to 2.27 mm., predominantly from 1.15 to 2.00 mm. (av. 1.50 mm.); thin-walled (av. 4 microns); lumen (av. 15 microns) is greater than thickness of walls; average diameter is 23 microns; non-septate. Vasicentric tracheids are present. Resin canals are axial and arranged in tangential series. SHOREA TEYSMANNIANA DYER EX BRANDIS Macroscopic General. - Growth rings are indistinct. Texture is moderately coarse. Pores are few, intermediate in size and visible to naked eye; solitary pores are rounded, occasionally with radial multiples of 2 to 3, sometimes in oblique pairs and tending to form an oblique pattern; tyloses are present; perforation plates are simple. Axial parenchyma is narrow aliform. Vascular rays are narrower than pores as seen in transverse section; heterocellular. Fibers are dense. Axial resin canals are in short concentric arcs and filled with oxidized resin. Microscopic Growth rings are indistinct. Vessels are very few to few, from 2 to 6 (av. 4) per sq. mm.; solitary pores are rounded to oval about 81 per cent, with radial multiples of 2 to 3 about 17 per cent, and in clusters of 2 per cent; medium-sized to very large, 156 to 333 microns in tangential diameter, mostly moderately large 200 to 278 microns (av. 229 microns); vessel element FORESTRY DAY ISSUE length is from moderately short to moderately long, 300 to 978 microns, mostly 433 to 667 microns (av. 549 microns); perforation plates are simple with horizontal or slightly inclined end walls; intervascular pitting is alternate and pits are vestured. Axial parenchyma is fairly abundant, vasicentric to alif orm; strand parenchyma is commonly of 4 cells; rhomboidal crystals are present in idioblasts. Vascular rays are moderately numerous to numerous, 8 to 11 per mm.; heterocellular multiseriates with 1 to 4 marginal rows of marginal cells composed of square to upright cells or uniseriate tails shorter than multiseriate part of ray, 3 to 5 cells wide, mostly 3 to 4, very fine to medium-sized, 22 to 55 microns wide, predominantly 44 microns; extremely low to low, 0.28 to 1.46 mm. high, predominantly 0.43 to 0.90 mm.; uniseriate rays are few, usually composed of square to upright cells sometimes with procumbent cells, extremely fine to moderately fine mostly 11 to 33 microns wide, and from 2 to 17 cells high, mostly 3 to 12 cells; usually filled with deposits; crystals were not observed; radial intercellular secretory canals are large; ray-vessel pits are simple and rounded to elongated. Fibers (libriform) are medium-sized to moderately long, from 0.98 to 1.83 mm., mostly from 1.04 to 1.58 mm. (av. 1.34 mm); thin-walled (av. 4.3 microns); lumen (av. 11 microns) is greater than thickness of walls; average diameter is 20 microns; non-septate. V asicentric tracheids are present. Axial resin canals are in short tangential series. The woods are all very similar anatomically, and some of the important and common features in them are the presence of axial resin canals illustrated for S. polysperma (fig. 1), ray-vessel pits that are simple, large, rounded to elongated and vestured pits in vessel elements illustrated for S. agsaboensis (figs. 2 & 3), and the presence of rhomboidal crystals illustrated for S. teysmanniana (fig. 4). However, it is possible to segregate S. teysmanniana from S. negrosensis, S. polysperma, and S. agsaPage 79 boensis. S. teysmanniana is readily recognized by the presence of large, radial secretory intercellular canals (fig. 5) which do not occur in any of the three Philippine species. This characteristic conforms with the findings of Brazier and Franklin ( 1961). There is a lack of significant qualitative anatomical differences among the species of the Philippine red mahogany. TI1e occurrence of rhomboidal crystals, although important, can not be relied upon to diff erentiate among them. It was reported by Stern and Zamuco ( 1964) that crystals are not present in S. agsaboensis, but examination of separate slides which were prepared from the same specimen revealed the existence of crystal in an enlarged parenchyma cell. It can be stated, however, that this crystal may or may not be exhibited by either S. agsaboensis or S. negrosensis. S. negrosensis has the largest pores with an average tangential diameter of 259 microns, followed by S. teysmanniana (av. 229 microns), S. agsoboensis (av. 223 microns), and S. polysperma (av. 192 microns). Although color of the wood is not a decisive difference, the heartwood of S. negrosensis is darker (reddish brown) than that in S. polysperma and S. agsaboensis where the heartwood is light red to reddish. Axial resin canals of S. agsoboensis and S. teysmanniana are in short concentric arcs or are interrupted in arrangement in contrast to the more or less continuous lines in S. pol,ysperma and S. negrosensis. The limited number of wood samples examined makes it difficult to draw generalized conclusions. For example, samples of S. teysmanniana were too small for the color of the heartwood and sapwood to be determined. Neither splinter nor frothing tests or other important tests could be conducted on this species. However, the woods of Philippine mahogany, especially tiaong which had for so long been known as S. teysmanniana differs from the true S. teysmanniana Dyer ex Brandis from Indo-Malaysia. Page 80 Table 2 is a summary of some important anatomical characters which might help in the identification of the species. LITERATURE CITED Brazier, J. D. and G. L. Franklin. 1961. Identification of hardwoods. For. Prod. Res. Bull. 46. London. Chalk, L. 19.'38. Standardization of terms for vessel diameter and ray width. Trop. Woods. 55: 16-23. Chalk, L. and M. Margaret Chattaway. 1934. Measuring the length of vessel members. Trop. Woods 40:19-26. Chattaway, M. Margaret. 1932. Proposed standards for numerical values used in describing woods. Trop. Woods, 29:2028. Committee on Nomenclature. International Association of Wood Anatomists. 1957. International glossary of terms used in wood anatomy. Trop. Woods 107:1-36. Committee on the Standardization of Terms of Cell Size. International Association of Wood Anatomists. 1937. Standard terms of length of vessel members and wood fibers. Trop. Woods 51 :21. -----. 1939. Standard terms of size for vessel diameter and ray width. Trop. Woods 59:51-52. Dadswell, H.E., Eckersley, A.M., Griffin, F.W., and H.D. Inge. 1947. The extension of card-sorting method to wartime problems in timber identification. Jour. Coun. Sci. Industr. Res. 20(3): 321-337. Forest Products Research. 1960. Identification of hardwoods. Bull. For. Prod. Res. No. 25, 2nd ed. London. Foxworthy, F.W. 1938. Philippine Dipterocarpaceae, III. Philip. Jour. Sci. 67: 241333. Franklin, G.L. 1946. A rapid method of softening wood for microtome sectioning. Tropical Woods. 88:35-36. Merrill, E.D. l923a. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. 3 Puhl. No. 18. Bur. Sci. Manila. Reyes, L.J. 1923. Woods of the Philippine dipterocarps. Philip. Jour. Sci. 22:291344. FORESTRY LEAVES ... ·::-~~ ,;.:i ·~ ~ ~ ... .. ·-: ....... . Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Fig. I. --·SQ Fig. 3. Fig. 1. Transverse section of tangile (S. polysperma [Blco.] Merrill) showing axial resin canals. X95. Fig. 2. Radial section of tiaong (S. agsaboemis Stern) showing large. simple, rounded to elongated ray-vessel pits. X900. Fig. 3. Radial sel'tion of tiaong ( S. agsaboemis Stern), showing vestured pits in a \•essel element. Xl900. Fig. 4. Radial section of S. teysmanniana Dyer ex Brandis showing rhomboidal crystal in an idioblast. X840. . ! p;g. '· Ra<IW ,..uon of Sh""' ,.,,.-· Dytt ~ ........ ;, mowing '"''"' ~,. ,... • ..,. in...,.Unln '"""' whl'b do n•• o«n< in ••Y of "" Philippin• mobogonY· -----. 1938. Philippine woods. Tech. Bull. No. 7. Dept. Agr. Comm. Manila. Salvosa, F.M. 1963. Lexicon of Philippine trees. Bull. No. 1. For. Prod. Res. Inst. (Philippines) College, Laguna. Stern, W.L. and 1.T. Zamuco. 1964. Identity of "tiaong" ( Dipterocarpaceae). Brittonia (in press). Compliments of ORIGINAL SAWMILL CO. Barayan, Calapan Oriental Mindoro FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Tamesis, F. and L. Aguilar. 1953. The "Philippine mahogany" and other dipterocarp woods. Pop. Bull. No. 44. Dept. Agr. Nat. Res. Manila. Tamolang F.N., Valbuena, R.R., Meniado, J.A. and B.C. de Vela. 1963. Standards and procedures for descriptions of Dicotelydonous woods. For. Prod. Res. Inst. (Philippines) College, Laguna. Compliments of NICOLAS ESTABILLO Concessionaire-Exporter Rm. 300 Cuison Bldg., Claveria St., Davao City - Tel. 159-J Main Office : City Address: Magugpo, Tagum 681 Claveria St. Davao Davao City, Tel. 1357-R Page 81 'ti ~ °" " O> "" "!l 0 ::= tTl (fl >-3 ::= ~ t"' tTl > < tTl rn Table 2. A rommary of important anatominal features. VESSELS RAYS Tangential Vessel Width Height I Species element Radial diameter length u • .;.,,;,;;., I MuliiOOrutei . Unire;,;.;.;. I Mnlti,;.l;;.., intercellular (range in) (range in (range in ( r~nge m (range in (range in I Secretory canals microns) microns) microns) microns) 1 No. of cells mm. Shorea agsaboensis 189-278 467-733 11-22 33-44 4-16 0.51-0.78 Absent s. negrosensis 122-333 456-933 11-33 ~13-56 2-10 0.50-1.3 Absent S. polysperma 122-244 244-744 22-3;3 44-67 4-12 0.33-0.86 Absent S. teysmanniana 156-333 300-978 11-S..'3 22-88 2-17 0.28-1.56 Presence of large, radial intercellular secretary canals. PARENCHYMA FIBERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----Length Crystals microns) Presence of rhom- 0.00-1.85 boidal crystals in an idioblast to absent Presence of rhom- 1.19-2.27 boidal crystals in idioblast-rare to absent Presence of rhom- 1.11-2.27 boidal crystals in idioblasts Presence of rhom- 0.98-1.83 boidal crystals in idioblasts FPRI MONSALUD OFF TO NEW ZEALAND FORESTRY CONVENTION Director Manuel R. Monsalud of the Forest Products Research Institute, College, Laguna, left September 18 for Roturua, New Zealand, as member of the Philippine delegation to the 7th Session of the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC). The session was held September 22 to October 2, 1964 and covered (a) review of the national progress reports on forestry and forest industries development, (b) trends and prospects in regional sources and requirements, ( c) development of forest industries and the role of the fastgrowing soft-woods in meeting wood requirements. Forestry Director Apolonio F. Rivera was the chairman of the delegation, "ith Forester Martin Reyes, Reforestation Administrator Jose Viado and Dr. Domingo Lantican of U.P. College of Forestry as other members. Private industries counterparts were Foresters F. Tamesis, J. Natonton and F. Esmade of the Nasipit Lumber Co., Mr. J. San\.ictores, Jr. of the Aras-Asan Tunber Co. and Forester F. 0. Chinte of Bislig Bay Lumber Co. TAMOLANG IS 1965 GUGGENHEIM SCHOLAR Dr. Francisco N. Tamolang, assistant director of the Forest Products Research Institute, College, Laguna, left September 12 for the United States to pursue post-doctorate studies on "fundamental properties of Philippine woods", at the Greeley Memorial Laboratory, Yale University. He is one of the three John Simon Guggenheim scholars for 1965. He will be away for about a year. Dr. Tamoland is concurrently assistant professor of the College of Forestry, University of the Philippines, president of the Society for the Advancement of Research (SAR) and of the Society of Philippine Taxonomists. The Foundation was established in 1925 by the late Senator Simon Guggenheim as a memorial to a son. The Foundation's fellowships are awarded to persons who, by their accomplishments, have already proven themselves to be of outstanding abi-lity in the fields of scientific research or in arts. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Highlights SCHOLAR TO VIRGINIA Mr. Nardo J .. <:antos of the Timber Physics and Engineering Division, enplaned for the United States last September 9 to pursue courses leading to a degree of :Master of Science in Statistics. Nards is under a teaching assistantship from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia. WPD CHIEF CORTES RETIRES Tempus fugit. Tune fleets by.And so fast. To Mr. Rosario T. Cortes, Wood Preservation Division chief, 27 years of service has not even reduced his former vigor and vitality. And yet it is done. Retirement comes to him in the prime of his energetic life. Still hale and hearty on his 65th birthday, Tatang Ros gives 10 reasons for it; first, his everloving wife, and then his nine children who are all still under parental authority. And in honor of his retirement, the Institute gave him a gaudy get-together chairmanned by F.V. Oamar, Administrative Management Division chief. The Forest Products Research Board will also award him a citation for his meritorious ser\"ices and unselfish devotion to duty. DIRECTOR MONSALUD A CONVOCATION SPEAKER Director Manuel R. Monsalud was a convocation speaker at the Teachers' Institute, Rodriguez Vocational High School, Nagtahan, Manila. He talked about the 3,800 local wood species including those classified as weed species and expanded that the FPRI has found several good uses of these weed species such as in pulp and papermaking, veneer and plywood manufacture, production of baseball bats, tool handles, venetian blinds, wood carvings and for other practical purposes. He also offered the services of the Institute to conduct short practical courses to employees of tablerias, lumber dealers, wood-working teachers, and others interested in these subjects. CHEAP WATER-PROOF GLUE "Tanpowderflourdust"! A brand new name, indeed: Yes, for this is an invention in the Forest Products Research Institute by Chief Lauro A. Ynalvez of the Chemical Investigations Division. Page 83 T anpowderflourdust is a glue compound derived from the dust of coconut husk, and from barks of kamachile, ipil-ipil, bakauan, tangal and other wood species. With proper formulation it is suitable for use as binder in the manufacture of particleboard and plywood. Last August 20, 1964, the Bureau of Patents granted to Mr. Ynalvez a Letters Patent for this invention. Now the Philippines can save dollars by making use of this invention. Barks of trees, rich in tannin, usually throvrn as wastes in logging areas and in sawmills, and coconut husks from billions of nuts harvested amount to a great quantity of materials for tanpowderflourdust. Local capitalist-entrepreneurs are invited to avail themselves of this new discovery . . . the preparation of this water-proof adhesive to meet the growing local demands. BULLETIN :FEATURES FPRI REPORT "Standard Procedures for Description of Dicotyledonous Woods" by F.N. Tamolang, R.R. Valbuena, J.A. Meniado and B.C. de Vela was featured in the last FAO Newsletter of the Asia-Pacific Region. The paper presents the importance of anatomical characters in the identification and proper use of wood, long standing and now recognized by the public as well as by scientists. The diagnostic features of wood structure allow for the identification of wood and are often useful in the solution of taxonomic problems and in the identification of sterile herbarium materials. Wood anatomy has also been of value in legal proceedings, in art, archeology, and geology. Microscopic structure is an indispensable adjunct to the understanding of the physical and mechanical properties of wood. In order to implement the study of the wood anatomy of Philippine trees, and to standardize forthcoming published treatments, it is essential to establish a standard system and procedure for the description of salient anatomical features hence, this FPRI publication. This also contains definitions of technical terms with accompanying photographs to assist in interpretation, and is designed as a guide and handy reference for those engaged in wood anatomical studies. TECHNICAL MEN SWEAT IT OUT Technical men of the FPRI underwent an ordeal in mental calisthenics as the seminar on Library, Preparation and Technical Reports Writing progres::ed. They literally sweat it out. HowPage 84 ever, Mrs. R. Vallejo of U.P. Diliman, appraised them as "very diligent" and said it was her best group of trainees in this field. DONATION TO FPRI Mr. Mervyn W. Simpson, sales manager of the Atlantic Gulf and Pacific Co., Manila, Inc., donated through Mr. R.R. Cortes of the Wood Preservation Division, chemical preservath·es and 1000 bd. ft. of Wolmanized lumber for the Tests and Display Building of the Institute. This commitment was made after the staff members llf the Wood Preservation Division entertained a team of AG&P Co. personnel and discussed with them recent and effective wood preservation techniques. KAINGINEROS, NOT BEETLES Ambrosia beetles problem is not alarming. This was gathered after an intensive survey of the Bicol region. However, kaingineros who settled in som11 places are posing the real economic problems 1.iecause of the forest destruction they bring about. Governor L. Amedo of Sorsogon deplored the lack of forest guards to protect the timberlands from these forest ,·andals. FPRI PUBLIC SERVICE Director Manuel R. Monsalud sent Foresters F.R. Lopez and A.L. Tongacan to Casiguran, Quezon, to assist the infant but flourishing bast-fiber (hat) industry in that province. This was in answer to the request of a certain Dr. Martinez, a very enterprising industrial pioneer in Casiguran. It was discovered that 803 of the households in Casiguran engages in that industry. They utilize for their raw materials, fiber species known locally as the danglog, angabo, sablot and oot. Of the four, oot ( Sterculia ferruginea) commonly known as sinaligan, yield barks which are highly promising for hat making. The rest are suitable for rope making. The Premier Pulp and Paper Corporation at Pasig, Rizal, engaged in the production of cigarette paper from local raw materials, is another recipient of technical assistance from the Institute. Jose V. Zerrudo, forest products technologist, was delegated by the Director to undertake the cooperative project. Zerrudo found that the mill encounters a problem in the preparation of the raw materials and in the pulping process. The FPRI expert gave advice on testing, analytical procedures and deinking of waste paper and also suggested measures for feasible preparation of their raw materials. Another fom1 of public service rendered by the FPRI is the training of personnel from various industries. This time, the Canlubang Sugar Estate (Continued on page 94) FORESTRY LEAVES FPRI Technical Notes WHAT ONE SHOULD KNOW ABOUT LUMBER When one buys lumber for a specific use, he is confronted with questions as to the species, size and cost of the material that would serve best his purpose. If he has detailed specifications of the material he needs, he is partly relieved of this problem. All he has to do is check that the material delivered to him is in accordance with the specifications. This is not, however, an easy job for the layman. He may know how to use a meter stick to see to it that the material he receives is of the desired size or dimension, but he may not know wood identification, much less lumber grading and other lumber terms which are important in determining whether the lumber delivered meets the specifications. Assistance, in this regard, may be obtained from local forest stations, forest district offices or from the Forest Products Research Institute in College, Laguna. Generally, lumber dealers stock lumber in a wide variety of sizes, species, quality, grade, and other related characteristics. In the Philippines, the price of lumber usually depends upon the grouping of timber made by the Bureau of Forestry based on the economic importance of the species, its hardness and durability, and other physical characteristics that make it suitable for special kinds of wood products and with little regard to the actual grade of lumber. Thus, boards that may contain defects may be sold at the same price as high-quality lumber of the same species. Other factors that affect prices are size classifications such as "narrows" or "strips'', "shorts", "eJi.tra long" and the availability of the species in "extra wide" or "extra long" and the availability of the species in the market. Like other commodities, the price of lumber seems to follow the law of "supply and demand." In the United States and other countries, the price of lumber is standardized according to species, uses, width, thickness, grade and other important features that affect the strength, durability and appearance of lumber. MEASUREMENT OF LUMBER The standard unit of lumber measurement is the board foot. Nominally, a board foot is the FORESTRY DAY ISSUE amount of lumber equal in volume to a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches \\<ide and 12 inches long. To determine the number of board feet in a piece of lumber, ""e multiply the thickness by the width, both in inches then, by the length in feet; the product is divided by 12, as follows: Where T x W x L Board feet 12 T = the thickness, in inches W = the width, in inches L = the length, in feet Hence, a board 1 inch thick, 4 inches wide and 12 feet long is computed as follows: 1 x 4 x 12 4 board feet 12 While lumber is generally sold by the board feet, it is also sold on the basis of surface measure, i.e., by square foot, when it is one-half inch in thickness. Some worked products, like moldings are sold by the lineal foot. LUMBER CLASSIFICATION Lumber may be classified according to use, extent of manufacture, grade and so forth. According to its use, lumber is further classified into yard and structural. Yard lumber refers to those which are commonly stocked in retail-lumber yards for use in general building construction. They are usually available in one or more species in a variety of thickness such as nominal 2 inches, nominal 1 inch, dressed 2 inches to a minimum of 60/32 inches. Sometimes thinner stock is offered in standard nominal widths of 4, 6, 8, IO and 12 inches. Some boards falling under this classification contain knots, pitch and other features that detract much from the physical appearance of the wood. They are not desirable for purposes where appearance is important. However, some of them are suitable for general utility construction such as for sidings, wallings, floorings, shelving, panelling and other similar uses in medium-cost and lowcost homes. Structural lumber includes those that are of heavy dimensions generally used for beams, strinPage 85 gers, joists, planks, posts, trusses, and other structural members to carry heavy loads. While defects affecting strength are common in yard lumber, they are not tolt>rated in structural lumber where strength is of primary importance. According to the extent of manufacture, lumber is classified as follows: Rough lumber. - Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but which has been sawed, edged and trimmed at least to the extent of showing saw marks in the wood on the four longitudinal surfaces of each piece along its entire length. Dressed (surfaced) lumber. - Lumber that has been surfaced smooth by a planing machine and more uniform in size than rough lumber. It may be planed on one side (SIS), two sides (S2S), and on all four sides ( S4S). Worked lumber. - Lumber which, in addition to being dressed, has been matched, shiplapped or patterned such as the following : (a) Matched lumber. - Lumber that has been worked to a tongue on one edge or end of each piece, and a groove on the other end to admit the tongue of a similar adjacent piece in a tight fit. This "tongue-and-groove" arrangement serves as the convenient integrating joint for the board elements in floors, walls, falsework, etc. ( b) Shiplapped lumber. - Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both edges of each piece to make a close-lapped joint when fitting two pieces together. ( c) Patterned lumber. - Lumber that has been shaped to a pattern or to a molded form in addition to being dressed, matched or shiplapped or any combination of these workings. CNDERSTANDING LUMBER SIZES When one buys a "two by four" surfaced or planed lumber, he will find that its dimensions are likely to be somewhat less. The rough "two by four" may have been reduced by seasoning and surfacing operations but the nominal dimensions, through all the phases of lumber sales, still remain 2 by 4 inches. This is how lumber is bought and sold by nomi1111l dimensions. The allowance for st.andard drc~sed Cin•ensinu is about 3/32 of an inch on one sicie cf the board. Thus, I-inch thick rough, seasoned hunbt:r, whc.n surfaced on two ~ides, will have a lhickness of at least 13/16 inch to be acceptable. Page 86 GRADES OF LUMBER Lumber if graded to insure uniformity in dimension and quality in the market, irrespective of the character and size of the trees frnm which it was sawn. The grading is based on the occurrence of defects and the location, position, form, number and size of visible defects and blemishes. There are two existing rules used in the Philippines in the classification of lumber: the "Grading Rules Governing the Inspection and Measurement of Philippine Lumber" and the "National Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA) grading rules." The latter set of rules for grading is often use<l on lumber for export while the former which was promulgated for local use is seldom or never used in our country. Although the government has urged our lumbermen to have their lumber graded so that the public may be able to buy lumber according to classifications, only a few practical grades are being actually used in the local market, namely: the merchantable grade and form-lumber or belowgrade lumber. .Merchantable grade corresponds to lumber sold in lumber yards for ordinary house constrnction, temporary construction, cabinet work, etc. Form-lumber or below-grade lumber are those pieces that do not come up to merchantable grade and which are usually used for scaffolding or forms in concrete constructions. DEFECTS IN LUMBER The following natural defects of lumber affect its strength and hence its utility Yalue: A knot has loose and broken fibers and, if subjected to tension, becomes a source of weakness. This is also true in split or serious check which likewise weakens the resistance of timber. However, a second knot on a post, stud or other members under compression, is not a serious defect. The presence of pinholes, shot-holes or grubholes on a beam has the same effect as knots. Lumber that is brashy is ob;ectionable. It is not only brittle but also weak. This defect can hardly be seen on the snrface but can be easily detected at the ends of the lumber as a coarse portion distinct from the normal sound portion. The presence of sapwood in lumber is not objectionable if treated with a wood preservative. Unless treated, it is safer not to use sapwood material at all because it is susceptible to decay and to the attack of wood-boring insects. FORESTRY LEAVES POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN ORDERING LUMBER 1. Quantity. - Feet, board measure, number of pieces of definite thickness, width and length. 2. Size. - Width and thickness in inches - nominal and actual, if surfaced on faces; and length in feet - may be average length, odd lengths or uniform length. S. Species of wood. - Y akal, taiigile, nato, bagtikan, etc. 4. Grade. - As indicated by the grading rules adopted by the Bureau of Forestry, if lumber is for export; or as agreed upon between buyer and supplier, if lumber is for local use. 5. Product. - Flooring, siding, boards, etc. 6. Seasoning conditions. - Green, air-dried, or kiln-dried (moisture content should be specified). 7. Extent of manufacture-Rough, dressed (S2S, S4S, etc.), tongue-and-groove, etc. REFERENCES 1. Antonio, D.W. 1956. "Lumber Grading." Forestry Leaves 9(4) :29. 2. Bello, E.D. 1962. Recommended moisture content of wood for use in some parts of the Philippines. The Lumberman 8(2) :10 & 34. 3. Brown, N.C. and J.S. Bethel. 1958. "Lumber" (2nd edition). John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 4. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1955. Wood Handbook No. 72. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison 5, Wisconsin. THE STRUCTURE OF PAPERMAKING FIBERS Generally speaking, paper products are made up of pulps produced from woods. The physical characteristics of paper products are, in turn, dependent upon the general appearance and morphology of the fibers that constitute the pulps. This relationship is important to bear in mind in determining the various types and grades of paper in order to prevent substitution or misrepresentation. Basically, fibers contain cellulose which is indispensable in the make-up of paper. As part of the wood, fibers and other wood elements, such as vessels or pores and parenchyma or soft tissues, are held together by a cementing substance known as lignin. Other substances like resins, gums, fats, minerals, and others may also be found in wood. Cellulose fibers can be freed from the lignin and other wood elements by cooking wood chips in a huge vat called the digester. They are there processed and manufactured into paper and other related products. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE The structure of fibers can be better analyzed by considering the general structure of the plant from which they come. Plants from which commercial fibers are obtained may be divided into two general classes : (a) Monocotyledons or plants with parallel-veined leaves, which are typically represented by grasses, lilies and palms: and (b) Dicotyledons or plants with net-veined leaves, which are exemplified by flax and the common broad-leaved trees. According to location in the plant, fibers used in papermaking may be grouped as follows : (a) seed hairs such as cotton and kapok floss; ( b) bast fibers such as those from jute and ramie; ( c) leaf fibers such as abaca and sisal; ( c) stem fibers such as sugar cane bagasse and bamboo; and ( e) wood fibers such as those from coniferous woods or softwoods and deciduous woods or softwoods and deciduous woods or hardwoods. Wood fibers are a boon to commercial pulp and papennaking because they are relatively abundant. While the term wood fiber has often been applied generally to all woody tissues, there are many types of woody cells which are, in no way, fibrous and cannot be classified strictly as such. In the pulp and paper industry, "fibers" which are referred to in conifers are tracheids; in hardwoods, "fibers" are the hererogeneous mixture of all kinds of cells because numerous vessel segments and parenchymatous elements are found in a hardwood pulp. All these wood elements are readily seen only with the aid of a microscope. To understand better the structure of papermaking fibers, it is important to familiarize oneself with the different wood elements that are present in paper. Wood elements present in paper Softwoods (Fig. 1 ) Coniferous woods or softwoods have few cell types which are relatively simple in structure. The principal cell types include the fiber tracheids, ray tracheids, and the wood parenchyma. 1 . Fiber tracheids make up the greater part of softwoods. They are usually very long (up to 7 mm. or over). A fiber tracheid is commonly an elongated element with either pointed or rounded ends, thin or thick walls, and prominent bordered pits on the radial walls. The bordered pits are recesses or openings 'Aith overhanging margins. They vary in shape, ranging from circular to oval or polygonal, elliptical, and linear.1 In the vertical 1 Linear means a pit with a great elongated, usually transversely oriented orifice (opening) . Page 87 tracheids, the bordered pits may occur in one \'ertical row ( uniseriate), in two vertical rows ( biseriate), in three vertical rows ( triseriate), or in fair or more rows (multiseriate). They may either be in opposite or in alternate series with one another. In certain tracheids, spiral thickening may sometimes be present. It may or may not be present throughout their entire lengths. On the other hand, some tracheids have thin transverse walls across the lumen. These tracheids are referred to as septate fiber traclzeids. The pitted area on the walls of a longitudinal tracheid, where rays are originally in contact ·with it, is known as the ray-contact-area pitting. There are five types of ray-contact-area pitting, namely: a. Large, simple or almost simple, u;indou;-like pits. b. Pinoid, i.e., fairly small pits, simple, on at most, very nariow1y-bordered and variable in shape. c. Piceoid, i.e., small bordered pits with a narrow, often somewhat extended mouth. d. Cupressoid, i.e, small bordered or partially bordered pits with fairly elliptical wide mouth which is included but which may extend to the border along its long axis. e. Taxoioid, i.e, small pits which, superficially, may resemble the cupressoid type. The mouth is larger than the border in most parts of the pit, i.e., the walls slope outwards to the mouth, not inwards as in the cupressoid type. 2 . Ray tracheids may or may not be present in a coniferous ray. These are comparatively short cells that are provided Vl-ith bordered pits which are smaller than the bordered pits of the vertical trachcids. The walls of the ray tracheids may be smooth, dentate, or reticulate. Ray tracheids which exhibit tooth-like projection in the walls are called dentate and those which appear fused are known as reticulate. 3 . Wood parenchyma of softwoods, like those of the hardwoods, are of two types: the longitudinal or vertical parenchyma and the ray (transverse or horizontal) parenchyma. In the vertical parenchyma, the cells occur in the form of strands. They are not abundant in softwoods; they are abundant in hardwoods; but, sometimes, they may be absent in either softwoods or hardwoods. The pitting in the walls of these cells are simple. Ray parenchyma cells are equipped with simple pits, if a secondary wall is present. The nature of the pitting, serving for communication laterally Page 88 from the ray parenchyma to the longitudinal trachcids in contact with it, is termed as the raycontact-area pitting. Ray cells may have at their comers depressions which are referred to as indentures. HARDWOODS (Fig. 2) A hardwood consists of four types of elements : vessels, tracheids, fibers, and parenchyma. 1. Vessels are mature perforated elements which have several segments. Vessel segment varies in shape and size, ranging from drum or barrelshaped to short-or-long-oblong and linear, with or without tapering or ligulate2 extensions at one or both ends. The opening (or openings) between two vessel segments is known as perforation. The area of the wall, which is involved in the coalescence of two members of a vessel to form a plate that is perforated, is known as a perforation plate. Perforation plates vary in type. They may be simple, scalariform, reticulate or foraminate. A simple perforation plate has only one aperture in evidence. A scalariform perforation plate has a number of parallel, transversely-oriented apertures present. In the formation of scalariform plates, the rod-shaped remnants of the plate, which are left between perforations, are called bars. The number, thickness, and spacing of such bars vary in different hardwoods and are of diagnostic significance. The pitting on the wall of a vessel segment varies greatly in nature and extent. In general, intervessel pitting or pit pairs between and another parenchymatous cell are usually bordered, halfbordered, or simple. These are frequently of diagnostic significance in identification. Intervessel pits are usually close to each other. They vary in arrangement, shape, and size, depending on the species. In alternate pitting, the shape of the pit ranges from circular to oval if the pits are not crowded; othernise, they are polygonal, and frequently hexagonal. In opposite pitting, the pits are often rectangular. When the pits are linear, with their long axis directed across the vessel, the arrangement is called scalariform pitting. Spiral thickenings which are helical or spiral rigdes on the inner face of the secondary wall, may also be present in vessel segments. These thickenings may be considered a "spot feature" in the identification of hardwoods. 2. Tracheids in hardwoods are fibrous cells which are shorter than the fibers, and have bor2 Ligulate means tail-like. FORESTRY LEAVES dered pits and imperforate3 ends. Two types of trachcids in the hardwood are recogniz.ed, namely: the vascular and vasicentric. Vascular tracheids are similar to the small vessel segment in size and arrangement. Vascular tracheids, however, are imperforate at the ends. The lateral walls are profusely pitted and are frequently equipped with spiral thickening. Vasicentric tracheids, on the other hand, are irregularly shaped fibrous cells with conspicuous bordered pits. They are different in shape from the vessel segments which they accompany and they are not arranged in definite longitudinal series. 3. Fibers in hardwoods are of two types - the libriform and the fiber tracheid. Libriform fibers have simple pits. They have smaller diameter and narrower lumen than the fiber tracheids. Fiber tracheids, in contrast, are commonly thick-walled, and with small bordered pits. 4 . The wood parenchyma are the soft tissues of wood, which consist of short and relatively thinwalled cells that generally have simple pits. The wood parenchyma of hardwoods are of two types: longitudinal and transverse. The longitudinal parenchyma are arranged in vertical series in a standing tree. The most common type of longitudinal parenchyma is the strand parenchyma, the cells of which, in general, have uniform wall thickness. The transverse or ray parenchyma are horizontally oriented in the wood. They vary widely in shape and size, in the thickness of their walls, and in the nature of their pittings. Their end walls may be vertical, oblique or bowed. They are usually rectangular (brick-shaped) in shape but, sometimes, they are enlarged near the middle or even irregular in form. In general, the pits of ray parenchyma are simple and minute. In some cases, they are bordered and relatively large. REFERENCES 1. Anonymous. 194i. Technology of papermaking fibers. Chicago, Illinois. Fritz Publications, Inc. 2. Brown. H.P .. et al. 1949. Textbook of wood technology. Vol. 1. New York. McGraw-Hill Book C'..o.. Inc. .'3. Cooke, D.C. 1959. How paper is made. USA. Dodd Mead & Company. 4. Heyn, A.N.J. 19.'i4. Fiber microscopy. New York. Interscrenci Publishers, Inc. 5. Jane, F.W. 1956. The structure of wood. New York. MacMillan Company. 6. Stoves, J.L. 195i. Fiber microscopy. London. National Trade Press. 3 lmperforate means without perforations or openings. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE 7. Teiman, H.D. 1951. Wood technology. 3rd edition. New York, Toronto. Pitman Publishing Corp. 8. Woods, H.J. 1955. Physics of fibers. London. The Institute of Physics. PULPING AND BLEACHING OF COLDSODA PULPS FROM PHILIPPINE WOODS The cold-soda pulping process consists essentially of the mild treatment of any fibrous material (wood, bamboo or agricultural) with sodium hydroxide solution at room temperature using either atmosphere or hydrostatic pressure, followed by defiberization of the softened chips in a disk attrition mill. This pulping process was developed at the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A. The attractive features of the coldsoda process are : (a) simplicity of operation, ( b) its wide applicability on various fibrous materials, ( c) high pulp yield, ( d) the wide utility of the pulp for making a variety of papers and pulp products, ( e) the possibility of "using the spent liquor in the proeess, and ( f) its adaptability to continuous operation. If pulpwood is used in cold-soda pulping, it is first debarked and chipped. The chips are then screened to segregate the fines and oversized chips that are normally undesirable for pulping. Chemical treatments are made with caustic soda solutions in concentrations of 5 to 100 grams of sodium hydroxide for every liter of solution depending on the species. In general, the denser species require higher concentrations of the caustic soda solution for efficient defiberization of the chips with a minimum of fiber damage. The penetration of the pulping liquor into the chips can be hastened by any of the following methods: pre-evacuation, hydrostatic pressure, mechanical compression and impregnation by vacuum-pressure or compression-decompression. Desirable time for liquor chip contact varies from 5 minutes to 5 hours at room temperature. In some instances, ra1smg the temperature to about 90°C also helps increase liquor penetration into the chips. Cold-soda pulping yields for wood, without conventional screening, range from 85% to 95%, depending on the raw material and the pulping condition but, with pulp screening, the pulp yields (accepts plus rejects.) 1 are lower due to the loss of fines that pass through the screened-bottom box that is used in collecting the pulp accepts. 1 "Accepts" refers to the pulp that passes through the pulp screeTJ. and is retained on the screenedbottom box which collects the screened pulp. "Rejects" refers to the pulp which is retained on the pulp screen. Page 89 High density woods cannot be fed into the conventional wood grinder to produce acceptable commercial pulps, but by the cold-soda process dense hardwoods can be utilized to produce pulps which may meet the demand for newsprint. The pulp, produced from a wood species by this process, is stronger than groundwood pulp that is produced from a wood species by this process, is stronger than groundwood pulp that is produced from same, and has a higher freeness which means that it is easier to drain the water from the coldsoda pulp when it is run on the paper machine. Consequently, the paper machine can be run at faster speeds to increase production. Cold-soda pulps, however, produce less opaque papers than groundwood pulp. In the standardized cold-soda pulping2 at the Institute, the chips that pass through the I-inch holes and are retained in 1h-inch holes of the chip screen are used in the process. After steeping, the residual chemical (sodium hydroxide) is determined. The softened chips are passed twice between the plates of an 8-inch Bauer mill at about 4 pereent stock consistency. The pulp is then screened, and passed through an 8-cut pulp screen Vl-ith .008-inch slot openings. The cold-soda treatment of the wood chips reduced the brightness of the pulp by about 5 units. This lowering of the brightness was adversely increased at higher temperatures during the iwpregnation. Cold-soda pulps, produced from local materials, varied in color from yellow to dark bmwn, depending on the species and the treating conditions. For making printing grades or other fine papers, the screened cold-soda pulp should be bleached. Any of the following bleaching processes may be used on the bleaching of cold-soda pulps: (a) single-stage hypochlorite, ( b) single-stage peroxide. and ( c) two-stage hypochlorite-peroxide or peroxide-hydrosulfite. The pulp, bleached with the single-stage hypochlorite, is yellowish while the pulps that are bleached Vl-ith the other three methods range in color from light yellow to ahnost white, depending on the species and the amount of bleaching chemicals used. Bleached Philippine hardwood cold-soda pulps range in brightness from 40 to aout 70 percent G.E., depending on the species and the bleaching method used. 2 Standardize 1...-old-soda pulping; : Chemical applied ............. sodium hydroxide Concentration, grams per liter of solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Hatio of liq nor to wood . . . 6: I Duration of steeping of chips in liquor, hours . . . . . . . . . 3 Temperature, oC. . . . . . . . ( 25 to 29) Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atmosphern Page 90 Cold-soda pulps are used in the manufacture of: (a) newsprint, ( b) printing and writing papers, ( c) towelling papers, ( d) tissue papers, ( e) corrugating board, ( f) insulating and building boards, (g) food and other bleached boards, and (h) molded-pulp products. In so far as it is known, the cold-soda pulping process may be used on any fibrous material but it is more suitable for hardwoods (broad-leaved woods) than either the softwoods (pines, spruce, etc.) or the bamboos. Since Philippine forests consist mostly of hardwood species, the application of the cold-soda pulping method seems very promising. REFERENCES 1. Barner, B.H. and H. Miller. 1959. Cold caustic pulping of mixed hardwoods. TAPPI 42:164A168A. 2. Brown, N.]. 1958. Special considerations toward impro,·ement of cold-soda pulping process. Paper Industry 39 : 844-850. 3. and J.N. McGovern. 1953. High yield cold-soda pulps and products from several woods. Paper Industry 35: 66-69. 4. Bugg, E.J. and A.J. Pearson. 1958. Manufacture of cold-soda pulp and from eucalpt woods. Paper Trade Journal 142: 18-24. 5. Nicolas, P.M. 1960. Standard cold-soda pulping evaluation of Philippine wood and bamboos. (Unpublished). Progress Report, F.P.R.I. Library (Unpublished). Progress Report, FPRI Library College, Laguna. 6. and N.P. Banaag. 1960. Bleaching of cold-sodd pulps of some Philippine woods. The Lumberman ° ( 3) : 5-6, 36. 7. Premo, R. 1962. Successful hardwood utilization realized bv Gould Paper Company. T APPi 4-'> (12) :142A-144A. 8. Snyder, K.L. and R.A. Premo. 1957. Mechanical pulp from hardwood chips for use in book papers. TAP PI 40: 901-904. PHILIPPINE WOODS FOH BASEBALL BATS Among the properties of wood, which are required in the manufacture of good baseball bats, are moderate weight (about 0.55 to 0.65 sp. gr. at 12 percent moisture content), straight grain, hardness (not brittle), good machining beha,ior and high shock resistance. Incidentally, the qualities that make certain wood species suitable for bats are similar to those required for tool handles. Aside from the properties mentioned above, two other criteria must be considered in selecting native species for bats as substitutes for the imported "ash" (Fraximus sp.) bats. The most important of these is the availability of the wood in sufficient quantity and at a reasonable priCf'. FORESTRY LEAVES Next, is the performance by field tests in actual games, to which the aforementioned wood properties may be correlated. On the basis of all the aboYe criteria, six native woods may be considered promising substitutes for "ash," namely: balakat [Ziziphus talanai (Blanco) Merr.], bayok (Pterospermum diversifolum Blume), bolon [Alphonsea arborea (Blanco) Merr.], magabuyo (celtis luzonica Warb.), palosapis [Anisoptera thurif era (Blanco) Blume] and Vidal lanutan [Bombycidendron vidalianum (Naves) Merr. & Rolfe]. Some distinguishing botanical and wood characteristics of these six species, including supply and distribution are: Balakat. - This is a large tree with a diameter at breast height up to 120 centimeters. The bole is cylindrical, 12 to 18 meters long. The sapwood is narrow and se-ircely distinguishable from the light red heartwood. The grain is straight and the texture is moderately fine or moderately coarse. It is comparatively light to comparatively heavy, weighing 610 kilograms per cubic meter when airdry, moderately hard and moderately shong. Balakat is widely distributed throughout the Philippines, but the supply is small and often reaches the market as "white miscellaneous." Bayok. - This tree attains about 50 centimeters in diameter. The trunk is usually straight and cylindrical. The sapwood is somewhat lighter in color and not sharply marked off from the light drab or purplish heartwood. The grain is slightly crossed and the texture is moderately fme. The wood is comparatively heavy (sp. gr. 0.665, air-dry), moderately strong and hard and tough. It seasons well with little degrade and can be worked easily and finished very highly. Bayok ill found in many provinces and islands in the Philippines. It is common in forests at low and medium altitudes. The supply is limited. Bolon. - It is a medium-sized tree, reaching a diameter at breast height of 70 centimeters and a height of 35 meters. The trunk is straight, cyclindric-41 and without buttress. The sapwood is light buff, of medium thickness, not sharply marked off from the buff-colored heartwood. The grain is straight and the texture is moderately fine. The wood is not glossy, heavy (sp. gr. 0.834 air-dry), hard and shong. It seasons well and can be worked with ease. Bolon can be found in forest at low and medium altitudes of Rizal, Laguna, Tayabas, Camarines, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Leyte, Cebu and Mindanao but is not abundant anywhere. FORESTRY DAY ISSUF Magabuyo. -This tree reaches up to. 80 centimeters in diameter at breast height, with a cylindrical trunk 8 to 2 meters high and a distinct buttress. The wood is straw-colored or pale white (pinkish buff). In large, mature trees, a small coffee-colored (warm sepio) heartwood is sometime found. The grain of magabuyo wood is slightly crossed or wavy, and the texture is moderately coarse. It is heavy (sp. gr. 0.825 air-dry), moderately hard and strong, fairly tough, but not glossy. Relatively, it is hard to work, owing to crystalline deposits which dull tools readily. .l\lagabuyo is widely distributed from northern Lu?.On to Mindanao and Palawan. It is common in thickets and open forest at low altitudes. The supply is fairly abundant. Palosapis. - This very large tree attains a diameter at breast height of 180 centimeters and a height of 20 meters up to the first branch. The sapwood is light-colored, 5 to 8 centimeters thick and not sharply marked off from the buff heartwood which turns yellowish or light yellow with age. Occasionally, rose or pink streaks are present, which fade out upon drying or rpon exposure to the sun. The grain is generally straight but sometimes it is crossed or wavy. The texture is moderately coarse. The wood is moderately hard and heavy, weighing about 640 kilograms per cubic meter, air-dry. Palosapis is widely distributed in Luzon, Mindoro, Ticao, Masbate, Sibuyan, Panay, and Negros, in primary forests at low altitudes and also streams in some secondary forests. It is available in large quantities. Vidal lanutan. - This medium-sized tree reaches up to 60 centimeters in diameter at breast height. The trunk is generally crooked and short. The sapwood is narrow (1.5 to 5 cm. thick), light-colored, sharply marked off from the heartwood which is brownish drab or purplish, including intermediate colors. The grain is crossed and the texture is moderately fine. The wood is fairly glossy, comparatively light (sp. gr. 0.598, air-dry), comparatively hard, tough, and flexible. It seasons well with little degrade, can be worked with ease and takes a high finish. Vidal lanutan is widely distributed from northern to southern Luzon, southward ti Mindoro, Coron, and Palawan. It is common in forested ravines and in secondary forests at low and medium altitudes, ascending to 1,200 meters. The supply is limited. REFERENCES 1. Heck, G.E. 1950. Laminated baseball bats. Reprint from Wood, October. Page 91 2. Lauricio, F.M. and S.B. Bellosilio. 1962. Mechanical and related properties of Philippine woods. (2nd Progress Report). The Lumbennan, Dec. 1962-Jan. 1963, vol. 9(1) :60-64. 3. Reyes, L.J. 19-38. Philippine Woods, Tech. Bull. No. 7, Dept. of Agri. & Com., Bureau of Printing, Manila. 4. Tamesis, F. and L. Aguilar. 1951. Important commercial timbers of the Philippines, their properties and uses. Bull. No. 32, DANH, Bureau of Printing, Manila. SOME PROPERTIES OF WOOD OTHER THAN STRENGTH-THEIR INFLUENCE ON SERVICE PERFORMANCE In selecting the best engineering material to use in a structure, it is not always sufficient to consider only the strength properties of the material and the factors affecting them. Frequently, it is necessary to consider, also, a number of non-structural properties that contribute considerably to the material's resistance against the effects of other factors to which it is exposed and the destructive agents peculiar to it. This consideration is important to maintain the efficient service performance of the material to give the structure a longer useful life and to minimize, if not entirely eliminate, hazards that may result under special service conditions. The more important non-structural properties that may be considered are: fire resistance, chemical resistance, electrical properties, thermal insulation, thennal expansion, acoustical, fatigue resistance and durability. Because misconceptions about wood pedormance in highly competitive structural jobs have resulted in prejudice against its use, these properties are herein discussed in detail. It may clear the minds of the engineers. architects and builders that wood, after all, is not really inferior to other materials of construction as has often been the consensus as long as its limitations are recognized. Under various service requirements, wood may be more suitable and desirable than other construction materials. Fire Resistance Wood is a combustible matP.rial; hence, it is generally regarded as a fire hazard. Its use in costly structures like big commercial, industrial and storage buildings has oftentimes been discouraged; its use is anticipated to be dangerous to life and property. High insurance premiums are, therefore, levied on wooden structures of these kind. This misconception about wood as a fire hazard is the result of not knowing enough about the qualities of wood. What people and the insurance -companies do not seem to realize is the overwhelmPage 92 ing influence of contents and design in the appraisal of a building's fire-safety rating. It should be recognized that time is a vital element in the destruction of a building by fire and in the saving of human life. Furthennore, no fire in a building of appreciable size can be extinguished from the outside alone. Whether a fireman will consider it safe to enter a burning building VI-ill depend on his estimation of the probable time the building has been on fire, intensity of the fire, contents oi the building and the material of which the structure is made. The last one is very important especially to engineers. When heated, unprotected steel loses strength at a faster rate than wood and is likely to collapse without warning. Consequently, no fireman would risk his life by entering a steel structure to put out a fire. On the other hand, in a fire of like intensity, a heavy wood structure would take a long time before it collapses if at all, because it bums slowly and loses strength only with loss of dimension. Also, wood does not collapse quickly even at very high temperature as does unprotected steel. A slow-burning and, therefore, strengthretaining wood structure provides ample time for firemen to fight the fire and thus prevents its spread and reduce destruction. Building codes and concrete specifications require a considerable amount of fire protection cover for reinforcing steel, aggregating into a considerable sum in an average rtinforced-concrete structure. Large wood members of structures burn through a slow process of pyrolytic decomposition. The charged wood adheres to the member to form an insulating layer or barrier against the penetration of heat and the entry of oxygen into the uncharged wood. The remaining strength of these members is oftentimes adequate [enough] to enable the structure to remain in service effectively for quite a lung time. Small members, though, as web members of average span trusses, are usually consumed totally in fires but at relatively slow rates. Fortunately, the fire resistance of wood can also be increased by treating it with chemicals known as "fire retardants." Chemical resistance -· \Vood is highly resistant to a wide variety of chemicals, including hot or cold solutions of mild acids and neutral salts. For this reason, wood is extensively used for various types of tanks, vats, L'Ontainers, pipes and other chemical equipment. especially those for use in dye houses, paper mills and other wet process industries, For the same FORESTRY LEAVES reason, wood is considered superior to iron and ordinary steel for the construction of certain industrial buildings and other applications. Wood, however, is much inferior to iron and steel in resistance to alkalis and strong acids. When in contact vlith these chemicals or solutions, wood is considerably weakened and eventually destroyed, though not rapid. Chemical resistance of wood may be improved to some extent by impregnation with paraffin and resin-fanning materials. Wood trusses, beams and other structural members of a chemical industry building may suffer loss of strength due to corrosive vapors but the hazard would not be as great as with metals. The extent of chemical attack in wood is limited in depth, and by making the proper allowance in the design, a longer economic life of the building is ensured. Electrical properties The most in1portant electrical properties of wood is its resistance to the passage of electrical current and its dielectric properties. Wood has high electrical resistance, and, at low moisture content, it is classified as an electrical insulator or dielectric. Because of these properties, wood is particularly a valuable material for poles and cross-anns and high-voltage power lines and handles of linemen's tools. Incidentally, the electrical resistance of wood which is the reciprocal of its conductance is being utilized as a basis of electric meters for detennining moisture contents of wood below fiber saturation point. Because of its dielectric property, wood lends itself to special methods of rapid gluing. It can be heated efficiently by placing between electrodes across which is in1pressed the proper oscillating \'Oltage. Thermal insulation The movement of heat from the outside into the inside or 'ice versa, through the walls, ceilings and floors of buildings, is a matter that deserves the attention of the designers. Proper insulation should be provided for the comfort of the occupants. Wood, in solid-savm state, is itself an insulator. Its use in outside walls, ceilings and floors of a building would increase resistance to the inflow and outflow of heat. The insulating capacity of wood can be increased if fabricated in the fonn of sandwich construction or stressed skin panels which incorporate a dead air space. The thermal conductivity of wood varies little 'lith species. Some differences are caused by direction of grain, specific gravity, moisture content, FORESTRY DAY ISSUE extractives, knots and checks. The relative rate of heat flow are approximately the same in the radial and tangential directions but generally 21,2 time~ faster in the longitudinal direction. As an insulator, wood has an efficiency of about one-fifth that of air, seven times that of brick, 400 times that of steel, and 1600 times that of aluminum. Thermal exPansion Thennal movements in wood are so small that they have little significance in structures. The trend of the movements is the same as that brought about by moisture changes, that is, the dimensional changes in the tangential direction are greater than in tile radial and both are considerably greater than in the longitudinal direction. For di:y wood, the longitudinal coefficient of expansion is of the order of 2 x 10-6 per degree Fahrenheit change in temperature, and the transverse coefficient of expansion, on the average, is about ten times greater, but fortunately, they are usually of much less consequence. Coefficient of expansion in green timber are generally much smaller and often negative. As a further aid in gauging the significance of thermal expansion in di:y wood, a dimensional change dne to 50<>C, change in temperature would be roughly just as much as that which results from one-half of one percent change in moisture content. Certainlv, in case of fire, there would be much less pro~bility of structural damage with wood than V1-ith steel or other structural members, forcing out walls of buildings as they expand. Acoustical properties Wood is becoming increasingly important as an acoustic material_ It is used in its solid fonn or in modified wood products like the acoustical boards with or without perforations. Wood has a high internal friction which gives it a capacity to dampen vibrations much more than most other structural materials, particularly steeL To the structural engineer this is the most important acoustical property of wood. Fatigue Fatigue is defined as progressive fractures due to repeated stress_ This is not so important with timber as it is with metals or crystalline materials. Timber, being a fibrous material, is less affected by repeated or cyclic loading. At ordinary working stresses with green and dry wood, fatigue is unlikely to occur Vl-ith up to 30 million cycles in bending and tension. Page 93 Permanence Another factor that is contributing to the misconceptions about the use of wood in structures is the general impression that wood cannot last long in service as do steel and concrete, and therefore, would not be able to give long [desirable] economic life to buildings. Wood can be made to remain in service for centuries and there are numerous historical e\<idences to this fact. In Europe, there are many buildings in which wood is still effectively performing its design tasks even after centuries of use. The wood trusses, at the Basilica of St. Paul at Rome, are still structurally sound despite the fact that they have now been in sen.ice over a thousand years. Wood piles, provided they are driven below the water table, to keep them always wet, can last indefinitely. In modem times, however, although the durability of the material and hence and permanence of the structure is highly desirable, it should be realized at the same time that obsolescene places a limit on the economic life of a building. In other words, for economic reasons. FPRI HIGHLIGHTS . . . (Continued from page 84) sent one of its chemical engineers, Isais Menorca, to train along pulp and paper manufacture. His intensive training is allegedly a part of the CSE's big plan to establish a 20-ton-a-day pulp and paper mill utilizing sugar cane bagasse. Three trainees from Thailand Plywood Co. completed a 2-week training and observation course and three employees of Sta. Clara Lumber Company and a student of the UPCF completed their training on veneer and plywood technology. Tests for Type II plywood were conducted on samples submitted by the Aguinaldo Development Corporation. Also, a training program was prepared for Mr. V. Serevo of the R.C. Aquino Timber & Plywood Company. And upon request of the Aras-Asan T"unber Company, wood waste studies were conducted in their saV1.mills and veneer and plywood sawmills. TAPPI ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP The Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI), New York, U.S.A., admitted Jose V. Zerrudo, forest products technologist of the Chemical Investigations Division, to its active Page 9-1 it is not necessary that a building be made to last for an indefinite time because, after some years, it may be considered obsqlete and require changes. Thus, the misconceptions about permanence of wood in structures is not of any consequence as it appears to be to many. REFERENCES 1. Davidson, R.W. 1958. The effect of temperature on the electrical resistance of wood. Forest Products Journal 8(3) :160-164. 2. Fleischer, H.O. 1960. The performance of wood in fire. FPL Report No. 2202. November. U.S.D.A. 3. Pearson, R.G., Kloot, N.H. and J.D. Boyd. 1958. Timber Engineering Design Handbook. CSIRO and Melbourne University Press. 4. Stevens, W.C. 1960. The thermal expansion of wood 25: 328-329. August. 5. United States Department of Agriculture. 1953. Fire resistance of wood construction. FPL Report R 1903-21, March. 6. . 1955. Wood Handbook. Agriculture Handbook No. 72. Go\<t. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. membership. A rare privilege, indeed! An acth·e member shall have a technical training and shall have been engaged in manufacture of pulp and paper or in work of technical character in industries, institutions and services related to the pulp and paper industry for at least 10 years, which period may include the terms of technical instructions in an educational institution of recognized standing. VISITORS Mrs. John Yench and four American ladies from the U.S. Embassy inquired on suitable woods for novelty purposes; about 40 Fullbright-Hays grantees and their dependents made a general tour; Mr. James Chang of Technicon Instruments Corp., Chauncey, New York, inquired about charcoal and by-products of wood distillation; a group of CD workers from Salesbury, South Rhodesia; Korean W APCO team composed of Messrs. Han Mo Kin, Heung Keum Lee, Hyang Kong Kim, Su Yui Choi. Hong Kyu Choi, and Hong Kyu Kim; Dean Pantum Thisyamondol, faculty of economics of Kasetsart University, Thailand; 50 American lady tourists representing various lady federations of California; ond Dr. N.L.H. Krauss, entomologist, Department of Agriculture, Honolulu, Hawaii, who made inquiries on bark beetles. FORESTRY LEAVES REFOIESTATIO ADMINISTRATION Reforestation Administration Diliman, Quezon City Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration recently enumerated several serious roadblocks to the progress of forestry during a recent interview with a local radio station. Among these, he said, are illiteracy, social customs, pressure of land, ignorance on the proper use of lands, and lukewarm attitude of some government officials. According to Administrator Viado, those who plunder the forests are not only the people who do not read nor write but people who do not know nor understand the values of forests in relation to national economic and social welfare. Examples of the l:i.tter category are the fly-by-night loggers, educated kaingineros, and squatters who exploit the forests to their own personal advantage, he pointed out. Forest destruction is also abetted by social customs especially of the primitive natives whose natural abuses are in the forests. Through their mode of agriculture commonly knovn1 as kaingin, they dissipate trees to the present tune of 60,000 hectares of forests annually, the administrator said. Another setback which is brought about by increasing population is the pressure on lands. Since the landless is forced to settle in forest lands. there arises a queer situation of illegal occupancy aggravated by land speculation by people who want more lands for the sake of having more to own. Insofar as the ignorance on the proper use of lands is concerned, Administrator Viado explained that there ha,·e been many instances where forest lands which ought to be under forest vegetation for having rough terrains are persistently being cultivated. Consequently, heavy erosion sets in during the rainy season followed by equally heavy siltation of dams, rivers and fields. Conversely, where the land is fitted for agriculture, the method of cultivation is such that plowing is done not by following the contours but by operating up and do'\\n the mountains, according to hint. The administrator also mentioned the lukewarm attitude of some government officials towards the prosecution of forest vandals as an ill besetting FORESTRY DAY ISSUE the drive for forest conservation and reforestation. He said that forest laws are violated '\\ith impunity in many instances because the offenders count with the backing of many a powerful politician. Consequently, tl1ese ills are now costing the country some 172,000 hectares of forests destroyed yearly, he said. Asked about the solutions to these setbacks, Administrator Viado said that all the forestry agencies of the government have come out with sound remedies, only they are not being implemented for lack of manpower and equipment to carry them out effectively. A systematic destruction of forests, forage, and agricultural lands is proving too costly for the country to ignore. The threat that it poses to the people is such that, unchecked, economic chaos becomes the unwanted, yet, inevitable prize. Thus, Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration assayed the deteriorating forestry situation during a radio interview over a local station recently. Administrator Viado bewailed that despite the present strides in education, the government has yet to stage a successful breakthrough on the principal barriers to forest conservation. Resistance to change in our mode of living may be inherent, but the people should try to understand that such so-called barriers as shifting cultivation or kaingin, range burning, over-grazing, exploitive cutting of trees, and other violative land use practices are acts that bear nothing but miseries for this and future generations, he pointed out. Kaingin, according to him, involves the deliberate destruction of portions of forests to clear the land for planting agricultural crops. After a short period of highly productive farming, the bare forest land is abandoned and erosion as well as grasses and weeds take over. This is the process that accounts for the presence of vast grass areas in the north Central Luzon, Central Mindanao, and many Visayan Islands today, he explained. Page 95 On range burning Administrator Viado said that while the practice is assumed to improve grazing condition of forage species, it nevertheless reduces soil fertility, induces the growing of other inferior forage species, and lowers the capacity of the land to absorb water as well as to control soil erosion. In the pa'it, range burning has caused so many forest fires which destroyed big areas of virgin forests and brought tragedy to those who tried to stop them, he added. The Administrator likewise considered exploitive cutting of trees as a form of misuse of forest lands. Cutting timber indiscriminately and without paying due regard to the maintenance of useful forest cover is a highly condemnable act that should never be tolerated. Ironically, this practice still enjoys the patronage mostly of the fly-by-night loggers, he said. Unless the people wake up to the said plight of forestry in this country, we will not be surprised at all if the whole nation continues to be dependent for its economic support upon other countries, the administrator warned. There is a very favorable atmosphere for pursuing extensive reforestation among government circles and private sectors. Hence, the Reforestation Administration is accomplishing thrice as much of reforested areas compared to the annual planting of 10,000 hectares before 1960. Thus administrator Jose Viado announced even as the Reforestation Administration marks its fourth foundation anniversary today, September 15, with a convocation at its Central Office in Diliman. Quezon City. The featured guest speaker is DANR Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano. Before 1960, reforestation was proceeding at a snail's pace mainly because of public indifference to its significance in nation-building. When the floods came and droughts erosion and other ills of forest destmction threatened the economic stability of the country, not only was forest reclamation considered as a national necessity but a separate agency, the Reforestation Administration, was also created, the administrator said. Today, the Reforestation Administration is maintaining more than 114,000 hectares of forests containing about 193,400.00 living trees of different species. This is already an impressive figure were it not for the fact that more than 1.4 million hectares of barren forest lands have yet to be restored to forest trees, according to him. The bald mountains awaiting reclamation by the government are mostly critically denuded watersheds of rivers harnessed for power, irrigation, and domestic use. It is the job of the agency to see that Page 96 these are planted to trees. With the full backing of the government and the people which we now enjoy, this task will be accomplished, Administrator Viado concluded. DANR Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano recently directed the Reforestation Administration to speed up forest reclamation work on the denuded mountains in Olongapo, Zambales. Secretary Feliciano's actions came in the wake of popular clamor to restore the forest areas made barren by timber smugglers, kaingineros, squatters, and other forest violators. Speedy recovery of the watersheds destroyed must be instituted at once to check all dangers posed by forest denudation on the entire province of Zambales. I therefore call on the Reforestation Administration as the primary agency to perform this in1portant job. he said. Meanwhile, Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration said that in the past, forest reclamation on the Olongapo area could not be fully carried out because it was almost always hampered by pasture permittees. It is hoped that vlith the Secretary's directive, the whole picture will change ,and the agency will henceforth do its work smoothly, he continued. Administrator Viado also appealed to all Olongapo residents to support the government reforestation drive for their own welfare. All forest \iolations must be reported innnediately to the authorities instead of being kept under wraps to serve notice to the offenders that their evil practices are no longer tolerated, he said. He urged them likewise to join the cooperative reforestation program of the government. Under this arrangement the citizens plant trees on denuded forest lands purely as a socio-civic gesture, with the Reforestation Administration providing the planting materials and technical assistance, according to him. At present ,there are two reforestation projects that are established in Zambales. These are the Olongapo Reforestation Project and the Magsaysay Reforestation project, Administrator Viado cited. The areas which have already been denuded beyond the hope of natural restoration to forest growth must be rejuvenated through the process of reforestation, and these areas are of such extent that they constitute a long-range challenge to the Roforestation Administration. Thus Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources said during the recent convocation marking the fourth (Continued on page 110) FORESTRY LEAVES The President addressing the Foresters in Malacaiian.g. r~-:o ,~ ...... ~ .. ~· I • l t'~ President Macapagal greets Director Apolonio F. Rivera and Asst. Dir. Juan T. Utleg, who head the delegation o/ /oresters to Macaiiang. • Preside11t Macapagal, DANR Secretary Jose Feliciano, Dir. Apolonio F. Rfoera, Asst. Dir. Juan Utleg and some o/ the delegates on the occasion o/ their visit to Malacaiiang. Forester Conferees 1m the stage of tire GSIS auditorium. OJJicers of the District Foresters League taking their oatlr before tire 811re1111 of Forestry Director, Apolonia f'. Ri1•era. Dean Gregorio Zamuco, College of Forestry U.P., delivering his message to the Alumni in the Domain USP Division of the Bureau of Forestry. Dir. Apolonio F. Rivera with Cla."8 '32 and their former Adviser, Prof. Jose B. Blando. Front Row (L-R) - Fors. E. Viste & V. Marababol, Prof. ]. B. Blando, Dir. A. F. Rivera, Asst. Dir. ]. Utles, Fors. L. Labasa,- & L. Versoza. Back Row (L-R) - Fors. D. de Leon,· E. de Guzman, E. Soriano, A. Hernandez, /(. Rfrera, C. Ferreria, P. Acedo & A. Ge11io. Dir. Monsalud and Asst. Dir. Tamolans con/errins with Personnel Chief V. Elchico and W APCO repre.•entritives Misse.• E. Beleno and Mila Reyes, on the promotion of employees' eJJiciency in the service. 1 Inventor Lauro l'rialvez (extreme left), Chief, Chemical Investigation Division, FPRI, is shown receiving his letters patent for his tanpowder/lourdust invention from Patent Director T. S. Evalle. Look· ing on are Asst. Dir. F . . Tamolans, Dir. M. R. M onsalud and Technical Consultant E. dela Cnu. For. Rosario T. Cortes, Chie/ oj the Wood Praervotion Division, FPRI, i& shown receivins a gift from Technologist Norrnita Pu durilllf the program given in hi& honor, on his retirement, Sept. 30, 1964. DANR Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano, Grtesl Speaker at the Convocation o/ thl IUJorestation Administration, Sept. 15, 1964 on the occasion o/ the Fourth An· niversary oJ the OJ/ice. Behind the Sec· retarv (L.-R. l Administrator Viado, Mrs. Santillan., Chief, Budget and Fiacal Unit, R . • i. and Deputy Admini&trator C. Cwuman. Director M. R. Monsalud (Joreground) oJ the Forest Products Research Institute is brie/ing a group o/ Fullbright-Hayes grantees and their .dependents during tlulir recent visit to the Institute. B. F. Notes RESUME: 1964 FORESTERS' CONFERENCE by Amador /. Evangelista CONFERENCE/ECHO Secretary Jose Y. Feliciano of the DANR praised forestry director Apolonio F. llivera for the dynamic leadership he had provided the Bureau of Forestrv since his appoinbnent to the directorship. Speaking at the closing session of the two· day Foresters' conferen ... -e held at the GSIS social hall September 2-3, the secretary said he wodd not hesitate at all to give Rivera his fullest indorsement and to highly recommend him to the President for a higher position in the government that would require greater responsibilities should there he an opportunity for him. "When I assumed the stewardship of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, I felt that one of the desirable steps I could take would be to require and rely upon the heads of the Bureaus of the Department to nm their respective organizations to the best of their abilities," Feliciano said. He explained that this meant he should be ready to give them the freedom of initiative, to find out what their capacities were and whether by their brand of leadership. they were ·worthy of the initial trust and confidence that he would place on their shoulders. "In both respects," Feliciano went on, "I have found Director llivera to have passed the standards with an excellent rating, and I, therefore, heartily commend and congratulate him." Taking a dig at the unscrupulous loggers, the DANR boss said his off'ce and the bureau were attempting to curb the exploitation of forests by indiscriminate logging through a policy which combines punishment for erring concessioners and encouragement for judicious ones tO\vard more profits vertical diversification. RIVERA In his speech on the first day of the conference, director Rh-era warned that the forces of FORESTRY DAY ISSUE forest destruction were still on the rampage and that the number of provinces still with forests was fast dwindling. If there was effort at all to stop the seemingly unconquerable forces of destruction it was but superficial, he said. The crying need which was very obvious, he stressed, was that effort to stop forest destruction should be accelerated. On the closing day, Rivera paid tribute to the foresters for their obssession to give more for their country and people even if by doing so they give less for their very own families. He reiterated his pledge to promote whenever possible the welfare of the forestry employees. UT LEG Assistant director Juan L. Utleg urged the foresters to be honest all the time. He said one may not become rich as a government employee but his heart could become rich so long as his cons cience was clear and so long as his friends coulrl not assail his character. TABIOS Acting internal revenue commissioner Benjamin Tabios invited forestry officials to sit with his staff to map out plans and formulate policies that could enhance the protection and conservation of forests and at the same ime guarantee the effective collection by the government of the revenues legally due it. PC AID Gen. Vicente M. Yngente, PC chief who was represented by Col. Mabugat, pledged anew the cooperation of his organization in the bureau's campaign against forest destruction. HEN ARES, JR. Chairman Hilarion M. Henares, Jr. of the National Economic Council, who was represented by Director Cornelio V. Crucillo of the NEC foreign Page 97 coordination office, stressed that the immediate goals of the forestry program should be : 1. The restoration of the 1.4 million hectares of forest which have been marked as critical watershed areas, plus what will yet be deforested. 2 . A more intensified forest protection. 3. Forest cx..aservation by pegging timber output to what could be sustained by the natural capacity of the forests. DIAZ: WELCO;\fE GSIS general manager Ramon A. Diaz delivered the welcome address. He readily and gladly approved the request of director Rivera for the free use of the GSIS social hall by the forestry conference. Diaz said he considered forestry work very important in the promotion of the country's socioeconomic well-being. It was so important to him, he said, that instead of sending his representative he decided to appear personally and be with the foresters . GULCUR Macid Y. Gulcur, UN FAO watershed managemen expert, said destruction of protective forest cover contributed to the impairment of the general utility the Ambuklao and Minga hydroelectric power plant. Watershed management, Gulcur said, implies the wise use of all soil and water resources so as to provide a clean and uniform water supply for beneficial use and to control damaging overflows which are closely related to land-use. LED DA Acting director Cornelio Ledda of supply and coordination was applauded when he assured the foresters that his office would give prompt attention to the requisitions of the Bureau of Forestry for minor equipment and supplies so long as the papers carry the signature of director Rivera. The honesty of Rivera, the supply director said, is so irreproachable that he "'ill not hesitate to approve requisitions signed by the former. Rivera's record as a public official is spotless, he said. OPEN FORUM Each division chief discussed the problems affecting his division. Open forum followed the discussions. The delegates especially those from the field service were so active and interested Page 98 in the open forum that many of their questions had precipitated constructive debates on the various phases of forestrv. Speakers were Rosales A. Juni, acting chief, forest research division; Ramon Rondilla, chief, sawmills and licenses division; Mario Garcia, acting chief, legal division; Segundo P. Fernandez, act ing chief, administrative services division; Antonio A. Quejado, chief, accounting division; Cecilio Diegor, acting chief, budget and fiscal division; Martin R. Reyes, acting chief, forest management division; Juan R. Ravelo, acting chief, forest land uses division; Marciano B. Basconcillo, chief, domain use division represented by his assistant division chief Tomas Manalo; Severino U. Nablo, forestry project coordinator; and Mrs. Visitacion Morales, auditor. The delegates headed by director Rivera and Assistant director Utleg called on President Macapagal September 4. The master of ceremonies was division chief Vicente R. Marababol who is also the executive secretary of the BF technical and advisory staffs. Rivera thanked the Philippine Lumber Producers' Association headed by Don Antonio de las Alas, the Philippine Chamber of Wood Industries headed by Lorenzo Sarmiento, the ADECOR through Mr. Rene Cristobal and the General Information Service headed by Sancho Ma. Chupoco for their cooperation in insuring the success of the two-day conference. The different committees who managed the conference and their respective compositions were as follows: Executive: Director Rivera, over-all chairman; assistant director Juan L. Utleg, chairman; Vicente R. Marababol, Antonio A. Quejado, Segundo P. Fernandez and Cecilio Diegor, members. Program and Invitation: Vicente R. Marababol, chairman; Amador J. Evangelista, Felipe B. Chicano, Jr., and Mrs. Trinidad A. Ramos, members. Finance: Antonio A. Quejado, chairman; Ramon R. Rondilla, and Martin R. Reyes, members. General Services: Marciano B. Basconcillo, chairman; Rosales A. Juni, Tomas J. Manalo and Atty. Hennogenes Pascual, members. Secretariat and P11blicity: Segundo P. Fernandez. chairman; Juan R. Ravelo, Amador J. Evangelist. and Melanio M. Gacoscosim, members. Attendance: Severino U. Nablo, chairman; Ma nuel ~1. Afionuevo and Gai:dencio Ferrera, members. Official delegates were dhision and assistant dhision chiefs, section chiefs, foresry supervisors, regional directors, district foresters, in-charge of forest experiment stations and timber management assistants. (Continued on page 110) FORESTRY LEA VFS Forestry in the News AMBUKLAO LOST UNLESS DEFORESTATION IS STOPPED Macid Yasar Gulcur, U.N./F.A.O. watershed management expert, warns that unless something is done to stop deforestation in the Ambuklao area, the life span of the multi-million Ambuklao hydroelectric plant will be shortened by haH. Mr. Gulcur made this warning in a recent radio interview conducted by extension workers of the U.P. college of forestry. Gulcur said if the rapid rate of sedimentatation goes unchecked, the usefulness of the dam will be shortened to only 32 years instead of the expected 64-year life span. He estimated that the rate of sedimentation in the dam is 52 million cubic meters or more annually. At this rate the dam will not be able to generate electricity after 32 years. Sedimentation in the dam is caused mostly by kaingin and forest fires. As a result, big volumes of soil and debris are carried down to the dam whenever it rains hard. The frequent forest fires do not permit natural forest regeneration. Thus, much of the watershed area remains unprotected throughout the year. Another source of sediment is the improper location of roads within the watershed. Gulcur said the soil used to fill some deep portions of the road is easily washed away when it rains because of poor drainage. To prevent the early death of the hydro-electric plant, kaingin and forest fires, must be stopped now, Gulcur said. The roads must be properly relocated and the gullies provided Vl-ith check dams. Unless these are done soon, he warned, the Ambuklao hydro-electric plant is doomed. Manila Bulletin 10-6-62 * •'· •.• LIGNIN MAY PROVE BOON TO WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES Now a stream-polluting waste of the pulp and paper industry, "black liquor," might yet prove to be the black gold of the wood-using industries. So called because of its dirty black appearance, "black liquor" is a chemically complex substance and thereby a rich storehouse of derived articles. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE This messy by-product of the pulping process is composed largely of lignin. According to wood specialists of the U.P. college of forestry, lignin is a plastic-like bond of wood fibers. All wood is one-third lignin. And although much is known about the structural properties of wood, very little is known about its chemical composition, the specialists claim. Virtually nothing is known about the chemical nature of lignin, add the college of forestry specialists. What is known, however, is that lignin is already being used in a number of ways. Some have used lignin in the manufacture of perfumes and cosmetics, food preservatives and skin ointments. It has also been used as an ingredient for insecticides, concrete, ceramics, textiles plastics, asphalt, fire foams, dye-stuffs, printing inks, etc. The more enterprising have used lignin as a soil stabilizer and with a lignin spray, instant airstrips can be made out of muddy fields. Still others use lignin as an orchard spray. They claim that lignin turns yellowing leaves into green within a few days. These uses are, however, but a scratch of the potential wealth of lignin. A large part of some 45 million tons of "black liquor" from the world's total pulp production is still wasted. More men and money must be assigned to research as the key to the treasury of lignin products. College of forestry wood specialists believe that within the next generation a breakthrough in lignin research can be achieved. Dr. Edward Locke, director of the Forest Poducts Laboratory at Winconsin, prodicts: "In another 50 years lignin alone may be a major source of industrial chemicals." Wood-users in the United States predicts that some day lignin will be the raw material for a $12billion industry. In the Philippines, the industrialization of wood has yet to make its debut. The chemical utilization of wood elements. has yet to be heard of. Perhaps findings of more research-oriented countries will, as is usually the case, open our eyes to untold wealth. And when lignin research makes its fmal triumph, "black liquor" VI-ill double the income of our growing pulp and paper industry. (The Bicol Star, Sept. 26, 1964) • * • Page 99 FOLK FEAR EFFECT ON WATER SUPPLY (Special to The Manila Times) BAGUIO. Oct. 11 - Mountain Province Board Member Gaspar Ponchinlan has assured Kalinga residents that a thorough and judicious study will be made on their opposition to a projected exploitation of Kalinga timberland by the Araneta University. A paper pulp mill is reportedly being planned in the place. FEARS VOICED Kalinga folk are afraid that the cutting operations might lead to the drying up of springs for the irrigation of their rice fields. An Ifugao leader who, together with Board Member Pio Felwa conducted hearings on the complaints of Tanudan leaders last week said that no defmite stand has been taken by the board is expected to resolve the issue during its meeting this week. DEVELOPMENT Ponchinlan said that he is for the economic development of the Mountain Province through the exploitation of its natural resources. But he pointed out that this development should not be a "oneway traffic." He said that he would stand pat on the board's stand that the people of Tanudan should benefit from the planned timber cutting for the paper pulp factory. Instead of building cable lines over Tanudan, a road should be built by the Araneta University, he said. REFORESTATION OF MINDANAO CALLS FOR HUGE OUTLAYS (Manila Chronicle, No. 4, 1964) The 1964-65 interim program of action for Mindanao calls for more than P750,000 for reforestation alone. Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration told the Mindanao Development Authority that the plans for the development of the Mindanao region comprising Sulu, Palawan, and Mindanao proper include the reforestation of 4,000 hectares for the fiscal year 1964-65. So far, about 6,470 hectares out of 27,240 hectares of barren and denuded mountains tagged for reforestation have been restored to forest vegetation, he explained. The administrator also said that the forest reclamation in the southern-most region is now bePa:;c 100 ing undertaken by eight reforestation projects. They are Anakan, Malasag, Cinchona, lmpalutao, Malaybalay, Basilan, Amas, and Dinagi reforestation projects. A major scheme of the Reforestation Administration in all these projects is the intensive. planting of such economic forest trees as cinchona, lumbang, albizzia lalcata, and rubber. Once established, these plantations will make the projects fmancially self-sufficient. Likewise, they will increase the income not only of Mindanao but of the whole country as well, since there are really markets for such trees and their by-products, administrator Viado stressed. SY-CHANGCO IS GUEST SPEAKER AT SYMPOSIUM (Manila Chronicle,, Nov. 4, 1964) Commissioner Faustino Sy-Changco of the budget office will deliver the main address during the whole-day symposium of the Forest Products Research Institute, University of the Philippines, at the FPRI conference room, College, Laguna, on November 12, 19134. Participants will include representatives of woodusing firms, wood industrialist, lumber manufacturers and exporters, students of forestry and even private persons interested in forest products research. Director Manuel R. Monsalud who will perorate on the various activities of the Institute with the aid of colored slides and flip charts said that the symposium will have for its theme, "Forest Products in the Philippines, its status and role in our national economy." Significant achievements in forest products research will be presented by the different heads of the technical divisions of the Institute, particularly on the following projects: Tannin-bearing materials for wood adhesives, timber engineering, wood preservation, veneer and plywood. Secondary wood uses and sawmilling and technology. An open forum led by a panel of discussants will follow the presentation. Manila Chronicle. 11-4-64 • * * JAPAN TO BUY RP LOGS STILL The Japan Lumber Importers' Association will continue to assign log carriers to the Philippine route now that enforcement of the Philippine Central Bank Circular 182 on log export remeasurement has been put off, trading circles said here today. FORESTRY LEAVES The association had threatened to stop assigning lauan log carriers immediately after the Central Bank issued the controversial circular. The circular requires reinspection of Philippine log exports at their ports of discharge. Because of strong protests from domestic log exporters as well as log importers of Japan, Taiwan and South Korea, the Philippine government had been compelled to postpone the remeasurement measure. The circles said they had received a report of an announcement by President Macapagal earlier this week of a new "grading act" aimed at the strict measurement of export logs, starting Jan. 1. Some loggers have hailed President Macapagal's suspension of the effecti"ity of the CB circular until January, 1965. Rosauro Dongallo, acting president of the Philippine Chamber of Wood Industries led those who lauded the President's action. Agusan Gov. Jose C. Aquino, a log producer, urged however that the government replace the circular with "more realistic" measures that would "enhance instead of stunt," the dollar-earning industry. The CB double check at destination was designed to discourage log overshipments that have deprived the government of dollar earnings and tax pesos. (Manila Chronicle, Nov. 1, 1964) * * * DM SUSPENDS CB CIRCULARS ON LOGS President Macapagal last night suspended for two months the controversial Central Bank circular on logging upon recommendation of a cabinet committee which offered a compromise formula. The President directed that the compromise be implemented immediately, particularly in so far as it authorizes the secretary of agriculture to issue new rules on the measurements of log exports. CB SIDE Mr. Macapagal also asked Finance Secretary Rufino G. Hechanova to confer '\\ith Gov. Andress V. Castillo of the Central Bank on the aspects involving the bank. The CB circular 182, which was to have been enforced beginning Oct. 32, had been protested by FORF.STRV nAV TS.l\TTF. lumbermen. It '\\ill be suspended until Jan. 1 of next year. THE FORMULA Among the salient points of the compromise formula on logging are : 1. The government will implement, effective Jan. 1 next year, the forestry administrative order which provides, among other things, that all measurements for log exports should be in the Brereton metric system, and that no allowances for defects of deductions from gross volume should be granted. Manila Times, Oct. 29, 1964 * * * MINDANAO SETS REFORESTATION The 1964-65 interim program of action for Mindanao calls for more than P750,000 for reforestation alone. Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration told the Mindanao Development Authority that the plans for the development of the Mindanao region comprising Sulu, Mindanao proper, and Palawan include the reforestation of 4,000 hectares for the fiscal year 1964-65. He said that so far about 6,470 out of 27,340 hectares of barren and denuded mountain tagged for reforestation have been restored to forest vegetation. FOREST PROJECTS Viado also announced that forest reclamation in this southernmost region is now being undertaken by eight reforestation projects. They are Anakan, Malasag, Cinchona, Impalutao, Malaybalay, Basilan, Amas, and Dinaig reforestation projects. Another project now being undertaken in Mindanao is the establishment of permanent boundaries of the reforestation areas. This is an urgent necessity because such a step will protect the projects from encroachment by kaingineros, squatters, illegal loggers, and other forest vandals, Vtado said. 'SKYLI~9E' CABLE USED BY LOGGER Dr. Salvador Araneta, president of the Araneta Institute of Agriculture Inc., reiterated yesterday that they have as much concern as the people of Kalinga over the preservation of their water resources. Pair" 101 This came in a rejoinder to an earlier report that some Kalinga residents have voiced their fear that the logging operations of the Araneta Plywood, Pulp and Paper, an AJA division, might result in the drying up of the springs that irrigate their ricefields. SKYLINE METHOD Speaking for Araneta, Atty, Rafael Dinglasan Jr. said that the APPP will use the skyline method of logging which, according to forestry authorities, is the best method for a rugged and steep terrain such as that found in Kalinga. The skyline method also minimizes the destruction of the forest and its resources by using a suspended cable for the transporting of the logs to the yarding area, according to forestry authorities. ROAD INADVISABLE Dinglasan said that it is not advisable to build a road in the logging area as this would harm the forest and the watershed. A road VI-ill also make the place accessible to people whose presence wodd pose another problem, he added. He said that majority of Kalinga residents have welcomed the project as it has generated employment opportunities. According to Dinglasan, they have actually planted 478,000 seedlings before they started logging operations. MEMORANDUM In a memorandum of the Mt. Province provincial board, the APPP said that it is committed to undertake the logging activities in line Vl-ith all the directives of the bureau of forestry, particularly its advisor Macid Gulcur. Gulcur is a F AO watershed management expert on assignment with the bureau of forestry. TREATED WOOD ALWAYS BEST Wood is reputedly a versatile material in construction business. It has even invaded fields where steel or concrete is required. In its mere form, however, wood cannot, in all cases, displace other construction materials considering the fact that it finally decays and is also vulnerable to fungi and insect attack. To ob"l.iate this disadvantage in the use of wood, technologists at the Forest Products Research Institute, at College, Laguna, have developed a chemical treatment to make wood more durable, more resistant to fire or chemical action, water-repellant, stronger and harder. Researchers at the Institute confirm that the use of creosote or borax renders the wood decayproof. This work has eventually set a wider field of wood utilization. Where wood has been considered of limited use in some areas of construction a few years ago, it has now been regarded by many as one of the more permanent construction materials. Wood can now be satisfactorily protected from whatever hazard it is likely to encounter in service by proper chemical treatment. Specifically, the advantages from the use of treated wood may be summarized as follows : 1 . Reduces cost of material, replacement and maintenance. 2. Boost forest conservation. 3. Pro" ides better wood utilization and good market for acceptable wood species. WORDS TO REMEMBER Think what others ought to be like. tlwn start being like that yourself. The mo;St promising young man is the one who does more than he promises. True statesmanship consists in changing a nation from what it is to what it ought to be. There can be no friendship when there is no freedom. Friendship loves a free air, and will not be fenced up in straight and narrow enclosures. Page 102 FORESTRY LEAVES Campus FORESTRY HEADS TO ATTEND FAOASIA PACIFIC FORESTRY COMMISSION CONFERENCE The different Heads of government and private forestry agencies will represent the Philippines in the Seventh Session of the F AO Asia- Pacific Forestry Commission Conference on September 22 to October 2, 1964 at Rotorua, New Zealand. Representing the Philippine delegation are Atty. Apolonia F. Rivera, Director of the Bureau of Forestry as Chairman, Dr. Domingo M. Lantican, administrative assistant for academic and research affairs of the College of Forestry, Director of the Forest Products Research Institute Manuel Monsalud, Administrator Jose B. Viado of the Reforestation Administration and Forester Martin Reyes, acting chief of the Forest Management Division of the Bureau of Forestry as members.From the private sector come Foresters Florencio Tamesis, Felix 0. Chinte, Jesus Natonton, Feliciano S. Esmade, and Jose Sanvictores, Jr. The Philippine delegation will enplane for New Zealand September 16, 1964. * * * F.E. DEVELOPMENT PLAN AND OBJECTIVES The Forestry Extension Department has laid down its development plan within the next .5 years. Included in the plan is the gradual establishment of 4 regional offices which shall be established in Manila, Baguio City, Cebu City, and Davao City. Implementation of this part of the plan entails recruitments of personnel to manage the offices. The department would like to take during the first year of implementation of the program 1 Assistant Professor, 2 Instructors, 1 Clerk II, and 1 Clerk-Driver. At its second year, it will have to take 4 Assistant Professors, 1 Instructor, 1 Audio-Visual Technician, and one Clerk-Driver. At the third year, 2 Assistant Professors, 1 Instructor, 1 Clerk-Driver and at the fourth year, 1 Assistant Professor, 1 Instructor, and 1 Clerk-Driver. All of them will be doing extension work. Also included in the plan is the acquisition of additional vehicles and erection of new building solely for the department of forestry extension.At the end of the 5-year development plan it is hoped that the department will have 3.5 personnel to run the department. - The department "'ill strive to FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Notes attain its .5 major goals which are: to bring about public understanding and appreciation of forest values, to achieve a state of public consciousness of the dangers of forest destruction, to achieve more extensive reforestation of idle lands more suited for forest purposes, to help bring about more intensive forest management, and to promote the use of more wood and other forest products in local manufacturing. Beside the major goals, the department also proposed to establish 4-HForestry projects, cooperative planting, fuelwood and pulpwood production demonstration, and some other short term goals. - The extension department "'111 continue pursuing these objectives. With the whole-hearted support of the faculty and other forestry agencies, these objectives will be attained. * * * F. M. ESLAVA OBSERVES 4-H CLUB ACTIVITIES IN 4 PROVINCES Mr. Felix M. Eslava, Jr., staff member of the Department of Forestry Extension is having a .5-week observation tour and training on 4-H Club work in Rizal, Laguna Pangasinan, and La Union. He started yesterday, September 14. - The first phase of his training is orientation on the function of the Commission on Agricultural Productivity, 4-H club works, extension works, etc. at the CAP central office in Diliman, Quezon City. The other phase will be observation of 4-H club activities in the provinces. His observation on the organizational set-up and leadership training will serve as his guide in the preparation of a 4-H Forestry Manual. * * * PROF. DE GUZMAN HEADS FS DEPARTMENT Professor Enriquito de Guzman is now the head of the Forest Sciences Department. This was announced by Dean Zamuco in his recent memo to the faculty. Chito is the youngest faculty to become a department head. But considering his knowledge and experiences he is as old as any other. - Chito belongs to the class 19.59. He was an assistant instructor in botany when he left to study abroad. He took up his master's degree in Plant Pathology at Cornell University. He finished his M.S. degree working as assistant while studying. Thus he was given the opportunity to study and apply Page 103 what he learned. Now Ch,ito finds himself head of a deparbnent, an indication that he is climbing to the top of the ladder of success. • • • THE ZETANS PROMISE YEAR-ROUND ARBOR SERVICE Resident members and faculty brods of the Zeta Beta Rho Fraternity volunteered to improv•· the planting site of this year's Arbor Week. They have worked the area as a site of their long range project. This was revealed by Prof. Osiris Valderrama, faculty adviser of the organization. - According to Prof. Valderrama, the fraternity will see to it that the area is properly managed every year. This will serve later as a show window of systematic forest management, he said. He added that with the help of the fraternity he intends to conduct a research on the area regarding the influence of spacing on the growth of the seedlings planted. - The fraternity began working on the project last August 19, 1964. They removed weeds and restocked a portion of the area with narra seedlings. • • • JAPAN ESE BOTANISTS VISIT UPCF A group of 17 leading Japanese botanists from different universities and high schools of Japan visited the College of Forestry August 24. They were accompanied by Forester Rosales Juni and two other B. F. personnel. The Japanese are on an inspection tour of the botanical garden in Southeast Asia. The group was led by Dr. Keiji Uyehara, a professor in Tokyo Agricultural University. - As a token of gratitude, they gave the Dean a Gas Table lighter as a personal gift. Professor Chnw Sakakibara also donated a plant (Phodea japonica) to the College. • • • C.F. GRADUATE COURSE DRAWS DIVERGENT REACTIONS In the faculty seminar last November 13, the question arose as to whether the faculty was ready to give the necessary training to graduate students. Some faculty members said that they were not yet ready and contended that the basic problems at present should be solved fust. Others said they were ready. The Dean expressed his belief and trust that the College of Forestry faculty with the cooperation and assistance of the graduate faculty of the College of Agriculture and other units of the University, was ready and able to give the necessary graduate training. Meanwhile, the curriculum and graduate program committee is presently preparing a graduate curriculum. Although the graduate course in the College of Forestry is still a plan there are strong hopes for its realization through firm determination of the College faculty and the cooperation of above-mentioned units of the University. Page 104 FE ST AI<'FERS TO ATTEND RADIO SEMINAR Joe Guerrero and Roger Camero will represent the College of Forestry in the forthcoming radio seminar at the Community Development Center. The seminar will take place August 31 to September 4, 1964. Idenification of problems in rural radio, theory and philosophy of communication. and radio program planning will be some of the topics to be discussed in the seminar. • • • UPCF 5- YEAR DEVELOPMENT BARED The College of Forestry has mapped out its 5-year development program. This was revealed by Dr. Domingo M. Lantican, Administrative Assistant for Academic and Research Affairs. The plan included the erection of additional buildings like a central experiment station, buildings for class room purposes, development of Makiling as an experimental forests, establishment of a botanical garden, and most important is the faculty expansion in all departments of the College. Although the plan has not yet been approved, it is expected that the authorities concerned will favor it • • • UPCF ENROLLMENT SWELLS Enrollment of the College of Forestry is gradually increasing every year. In 1961, the enrollment during the first semester was 384, 424 in 1962, 431 in 1963 and this year's is 501. For the past three years, enrollment has increased at an average rate of 41 students per year. If this rate continues, the enrollment Vl<ill reach 650 in 4 more years. • • • NEW WATER SYSTEMS NEARS COMPLETION Professor Agustin Pascua, officer-incharge of the Makiling Forest disclosed recently that the new water system of the College of Forestry costing P60,000.00 is now about to be finished. According to Prof. Pascua, the source of water supply, the uppermost spring of Maralas Creek, has been tapped with six inches and four inches pipes. To ensure a steady supply of water, a water reservoir containing 50,000 gallons which cost Pl5,000 has been installed also. The whole water system, including the installation of a hypochlorinator, is expected. to he finished at the end of October, 1964. The new water system was designed to supply the forestry campus residence, including the Forest Products Research Institute and the Forest Experiment Station. It will provide them with water free from mud and filth during heavy rains. Installation of the new water system has been made possible with the assistance of National Economic Council and the Agency for International Development. FORESTRY LEAVES ,Liter«rlJ Attempts COUPLETS By JULITA GERARDO i am the combination of languid tunes convened by shrilling storms i am the leaf age of lights peppered by sun and rain i am the blast of u:inds enragecl by fickleness of time i am the rambling searcher yeaming for goldthreads in f arau:ay skies i am the everlasting hearth lustrous of sparkles and flames i am the dark night's light veiled u:ith wandering clouds i am the lost soul of man i am the pen of endless questionings. YOU By HERMINIO SAMBAJON Once: While strolling in the garden You set your eyes on me, "Oh, Heart!" you cried and picked me And walked on away, away . . . For I u·as pure • .<\nd fresh as dew With bloody color So red, so true, Swaying to every gentle Breeze that blew No one had held No one, but you. In your hands: The warmth I never felt before I found in you, in you alone. Wished to part from you no more In you I found the haven of my soul. The palpitation of your breast Drummed the whole of my being. The honey of your lips No sweetness had I tasted before. Like music your voice so melodious Your breath, perfumed Your hair so black, so shiny As I alighted on there. To the pool you came and sat, Mirrored yourself and awed at your reflection How Gemma-like your body, so u·hite, so perfect FORESTRY DAY ISSUE Your height, your posture, your u·alking, I saw in a queen. But then: \\-'hen you came across another You exclaimed again, "Oh, Heart!" Then picked it as what you did to me And me mercilessly thrown au·ay For u:hen you found Better than one You readily changed your mind, And me you had thrown to somewhere Was left to sun, to flies, To rain, to be discarded And trodden upon . . . MY FATHER'S WISH By BEN CAPUL JR. The sun completely hid its face behind the towering mountains in the west over the sea and soon the cloak of the night enveloped the face of the world. The pounding of the waves echoed through the night as the coconut trees rustled their fronds as if whispering to the world that another day was over and another was to come for another task to be done. Carlos, leaning against the trunk of a coconut tree, sat on the beach and rubbed his eyes. He had been sitting there for three hours watching the setting sun. "Father was right," he murmured. "Indeed, he was right." It was also in the same place, one afternoon, six years ago, that Carlos and his father sat on a felled trunk of a coconut tree to rest after rolling up their fishing nets to mark the end of a day's work. Carlos then had just graduated from high school. Digging his toes in the sand, he told his father, "Father, I don't want to go College. I want to stay here to help you." His father looked at him long and sadly answered. "No my son. I want you to finish a course. I want to see you wear that black hood and cap and holding a diploma before I die. I'll do all the best I can even if it will mean my life just so you can finish a course.'' "But, father .. , Carlos argued, "this work is too much for an old man like you. Besides, I am not interested in earning a degree. After all, I can Paite 105 live and be happy without it. Your pareng Juan, your pareng Simo and some of your friends here have not acquired any degree, have they Yet, they are happy and have no problem about money." His father gazed at the setting sun. "Carlos, look at that setting sun. This morning, we saw it shine bright. Tomorrow we are uncertain if it will shine as bright as this morning. It may be covered with huge dark clouds. You are like that setting sun, Carlos. We don't know how bright is your future. Besides, I don't want you to suffer the hardships the way I now do to earn a living. So, prepare yourseH. A week from now, you will be leaving for Los Baiios to study forestry. I wish that you would go there and fmish the course. When he was already in College, his father used to write him to work harder for his future, but Carlos gave the same childish and foolish answer: "I can live and be happy without any -degree; besides I have no ambition to earn one." He finished the BSF degree only because it was his father's wish. The foolish reasoning remained in his mind even when he was already working in the Bureau of Forestry. He did not quite understand the idea behind his father's vi,ish not until his father got sick and he was told to go home. This morning while he and his mother were at his father's bedside the sick with hall closed eyes, tremblingly held him on the shoulder and smiled at him. "How are you my son? You've been away for almost six years. I believe you now understand life. Have you compared your job in Manila to ours here in the barrio? Have you seen the difference? I hope you understand now why I insisted on your going to college although I knew it was against your will." Carlos nodded his head. "Now I'm sure your future is as bright as the sun that shone this morning. And this afternoon exhausted with walk ing on the white beach of the barrio, he sat on the sand and leaned against the trunk of a coconut tree. He was facing the wide ocean and thinking about his once foolish idea. Now he realized what a fool he had been about not wanting to get a degree. Now he fully understood what his father meant about the value of a degree. How important it is for a man's future. With a bright face, he stood up and walked slowly toward the house. His heart beat for joy and his mind shouted, "Yes, Father, you are right . . . Now I understand." The Person that has Influenced Me Most By: FLORENCIO MACARANAS My gaily decorated red shirt sparkled in the morning sun as I danced to the lively tempo of the piano. I was performing in a school program, and in the midst of teachers, students and parents in the audience, I could feel the sparkle and the glow, and the warmth of a heart. That heart was my Mother's. Her once dainty hands were the first to give out the applause, as she clapped proudly for me. On one of her hands could be seen the mark where a ring once stood - a small white band encircling her wrinkling finger. My Mother had pawned her gold wedding ring, so she could buy me a costume for that short dance. It was under this kind of a mother love that I grew up. I have grown with hardships, but I had known love. I have experienced pain, but I had known love. Page 106 My Mother is an ordinary woman - if ramng nine healthy children under the most adverse of conditions can be called ordinary. I am not ashamed to say that home to us in Baguio is a tottering old house which leaks during a strong rain. Under this roof, nine strong children are growing up. (Now that I'm away, eight). To supplement the small income my Fathrr has been earning, my mother had also been working as a government clerk ever since my elementary grades. She is away from home eight hours a day and how she managed not to raise a black sheep is beyond me. We, her children, have been left to ourselves a good deal of the time, my Father being always away working also. But we have managed to tum our energies to useful efforts. Maybe it is because we grew up with the discipline, the example, and the love of our parents. FORESTRY LEAVES To add to my mother's difficulties, her three eldest children (I'm the eldest) are all boys - boys who abhor housework. But I have been washing dishes since I was in grade one, and my sister in the rust grade is doing so, too, now. I use to break more dishes than I could wash, but my mother remedied that. She bought alumimun cups and dishes for us to use. From then on, she bought a new dish only when it already looked like a cup, and a new cup when it already looked like a dish. My Mother also taught me hO\v b wash and iron clothes, and I have graduated from seeks and handkerchiefs to jackets and pants. For a personal reason I don't like to wash girls' clothes. Except during and after pregnancies, my mother has always maintained a hectic schedule. She wakes up at five o'clock in the morning, cooks breakfast (you should experience waking up early every morning in Baguio, especially during December, and wash rice with ice cold water), catches the 6 : 30 mass, and comes home in time to see us off to school. Then she takes her breakfast, leaves the baby to a neighbor or to my aunt when she·~ there, and goes off to work. The rust to be dismissed from class cooks the food, and so far all of m have not been d!smissed late at the same time. Housework has always been rotated among us. We took turns "'·ashing dishes, cooking, (except breakfast), cleaning the house, washing clothes, taking care of the baby (a new baby came up every two years), and gardening, or watering the plants. I think this housework has led me to choose a school away from home. The trouble is that I still do some washing here - to save money. TO THE LADY FORESTER By FLORENCIO MACARAX.~S Thy exquisite charm and coluptuous grace, Brings uncaressed loveliness to the trees; The warmth and beauty in thy face, Gives tenderness to the plant's embrace Oh you sweet creature that breaks all ire, Why do you start all the forest afire? You are the lamp of the woods entire, That draws the heart of a forester sire. When at toil in a vegetation mesh, You tap nothing but a warm caress; The leaves are keen for a blissful kiss, They 1rnnt nothing more than a forestress. FORESTRY DAY ISSUE My parents have always been fervent Catholics, and they have always inculcated religion into our lives. Perhaps it is an abiding faith in God that has bound us together all these years. \Ve have always been grateful for good health, good grades, adeq t;ate shelter, and food. There is one remarkable talent of my mother which amazes me. She only finished a two-year secretarial course, but it was she who practically taught me the rudiments of arithmetic and algebra. And it was she who taught me and by brothers and sisters, how to draw, how to read, how to write, and how to pray. Our kindergarten teachers certainly had a holiday when we were unde'r them. Once, I fell asleep, rushing up an album for my project. When I woke up in the morning, my· album was neatly finished, ready for submission. My mother had finished it for me. Despite the financial handicap of my parents, they have managed to give us a well-rounded education, good discipline, and a passion for hard work. We had our share of scoldings, beatings, troubles. and tears. And despite the cJld that always seeped into the cracks of our house, we always ·had warmth, warmth in our hearts, because we had a loving Father and Mother. As I bade goodbye to my parents to pursue my education here, I could see that the long and difficult years have 'vorn out a great deal of the small but strong frame of my Mother. The wrinkles were already very evident, and her shoulders were not as straight as they had been. But I knew that her heart · was as strong as ever and was beating hard for me. I could feel the tears ready to c::ime out of her eyes, as the bus was leaving. Ard for every tear that dropped from my mothers eyes, I had promised to achieve something she would be proud of. DOMINADOR CACHA Timber Licensee Calapan Oriental Mindoro Page 107 FORESTRY EDUCATION IS A CAREER By Teogenes T. Agbisit (With apologies to so many articles published and unpublished regarding it.) A question which usually confronts· every secondary graduate is "What course shall I follow?" The question is easy but the answer is complicated due to the varied factors that determine one's goal. We are in an age of specialization and economic stress. The country cannot tolerate to have many square pegs in round holes. Secondary graduates should therefore examine their natural abilities of making good in the course they pursue. It is very apparent that we cannot all be good doctors, good lawyers, good engineers, good nurses or good stewardesses. Those who have a natural love for our forest and who desire to serve the Philippines at her present state of economic development should consider Forestry Education. The forester of today is reared, trained and developed to play his proper role in safeguarding our forests. And perhaps he is the most important man when it comes to the protection, management, and establishment of our forests. Foresters now occupy important roles in the places where they live. They are usually active in social and civic activities and being specially trained in forestry problems and solutions, their advice and suggestions are always sought. A forestry career affords a wonderful opportunity for actual service geared to the economic development of the country. It offers a dignified professional career. Forestry is lucrative in proportion to the educational foundation one possesses and his honesty of purpose towards the phase of forestry activity he may choose to specialize in. Employment in the field of forestry are many and varied. Forestry grclduates may serve as government researchers and teachers. They may join the private industries, the Bureau of Forestry, the Parks and Wildlife Office, or the Reforestation Administration, to mention a few agencies. The creation of reforestation projects and timber management stations throughout the country are destined to offer a forestry graduate much greater opportunity for employment than those who graduate from other technical courses. Among the principal objectives of forestry in the Philippines, may be mentioned : the control and eradication of reckless forest destruction and the promotion of our forest resources. If the reckless Page 108 forest destruction is not controlled or eradicated, the production of good quality timbers on commercial scale will be fruitless, because new generations of forests will always be destroyed. Once the forest destroyers are controlled, forest production will enhance the economic development of the country. One of the effective means of controling these reckless forest destroyers is forestry education which is considered the most important. Prospective students of forestry should possess a natural love for the forest although love for it may be cultivated by constant contact with it. Those who had been reared, trained and developed in an environment conducive to forestry work will 'be better qualified to pursue this career than those who have no previous contact with forests. Intelligence and a certain degree of resourcefulness are also very important factors for one who wants to enter the forestry career. A Young Forest Tree's Prayer By FERNANDO ATMOSFERA Oh, my Lord, you allowed me to grow this big, After twenty years of hard and tested life, Exposed to all enemies, Like insects, fungi and diseases, winds, animals and human beings. Kindly spare me from being harassed, Felled and sacrificed into the fire Or just thrown into the precipice, As I am still young and tender for the market. I know my Lord, that you will not free mankind of your anger, If those forest vandals insist in their unscrupulous practices, You will surely prove your might and power By washing down their homes and villages during floods, And depriving them of water for their crops during summer. I know my Lord, that you love me and your people, So, give them the _faculties to think better By not cutting me down Until I am of real value to them, I thank you Lord, My Ever Dear. • ::: * r'ORESTRY LEAVES MGM? Two drunken gentlemen were wandering through the zoo and when they came to the lion's cage, they stood watching the beast for some time. Suddenly the lion let out a loud roar. "Hey, let's go," said the first drunk. "Go ahead if you want to," said the other, "but I'm gonna stay and watch the movie!" 0 0 0 REMOTE CONTROL DRIVING Judge: "How did you happen to hit the other car?" Motorist: "It was entirely my wife's fault. She fell asleep in the back seat." 0 0 0 OUT OF BEAT "Oh, you were out again last night, eh?" the stenographer asked her boss. "I suppose you're afraid to go home after work and face the music?" "Face the music" was the reply. "I'm even afraid to go near the band!" 0 0 0 Of all assault and battery cases a physician has ever ministered to the one of Christopher Morley is an advanced course in mayhem. A writer friend of Chris's used to pound himself on the head to get ideas. Said it always worked. Morley walked into the fellow's workshop one day and saw a huge bruiser pummeling the writer's cranium with boilermaker's blows. "Hey, you gorilla," roared Morley, "leave my friend alone." "It's O.K. Chris," pleaded the writer, "I've just sold my first short story and now I can afford a secretary." * * * FORESTRY DAY ISSUE MARRIAGE-WHAT AND HOW. Friend of mine back home says it takes two to make a marriage - a single girl and an anxious mother. 0 0 0 Marriages are made in heaven . . . but so is thunder and lightning. 0 0 0 WHAT'S THAT? It was a farewell dinner for the minister who was transferred to another parish. A little old lady was saying goodbye to the gentleman and concluded: "I am sorry you're going. I never knew what sin was until you came here." GOD, SANTY AND ME It was one of those cold days just before Christmas and a mother hadn't heard much of late from her six-year-0Id son in the next room. "Jimmy," she called, "what are you doing?" "Nothing," he replied. "With you and God and Santa Claus all watching me, I'm scared tc do a thing." SANTY AND THE TEXAN It was a little boy from Texas who walked up to Santa Clause and said, "What can I do for you." * * * "Mother," asked little Elsie, "do fairy tales always begin with 'Once upon a time?' " "No," replied the mother. "They sometimes begin with 'My dear, I'll be detained at the office tonight.'" * * * Page 109 B.F. NOTES ... (Continued from page 98) The bureau of forestry reported the other day an unprecedented increase in revenue collection of more than P'9 million during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1964 in the form of forest charges, reforestation fund charges and miscellaneous services fees from the use of the country's forests. Forestry director Apolonio F. Rivera bared that during the fiscal year 1962-1963 his bureau raked in only 1"26,933,180.83 as compared to P36,019,906.64 collected last year. He said the total collection of the Bureau of forestry this year increased by 1"9,086,72.5.81 over that of the previous fiscal year. Rivera said the income of the bureau of forestry this year also exceeded by more than P'l9 million the 1961-1962 collection of the agency. According to Rivera assessment in forest charges shot up from f"lS,087,418.40 in 1943 to P22,609,R. A. NOTES ... (Continued from page 96) founl:.ton anniversary of the Reforestation Administration. Commending Administrator Jose Via.do for the agency's past performance in the field of forest reclamation, Feliciano believed that the socio-economic program of President Diosdado Macapagal is depending greatly for its success on reforestation. He said he is glad that with the administration's program as the immediate frame of reference, the Reforestation Administration is proceeding in the right direction. Jn 1961, with an appropriation of 1"4 million, it was able to reforest more than 12,000 hectares. In 1962, despite a slightly smaller appropriation of a little over P'4 million it increased its reforestation coverage by 14,000 hectares. In 1963, "ith an outlay of 1"7.4 million pesos, it boosted its production by 35,000 hectares. "I understand that the accomplishments for the year 1964 promises to be more encouraging and for this, you deserve recognition because your task remains to be tremendous both in magnitude and importance," he said. In behalf of the agency, Administrator Viado told the DANH , Secretary that given government and public support, the Reforestation Administration "ill be able to restore the country's barren areas to forest vegetation. It is the goal of the agency implement the five-year socio-economic program of the administration by hastening forest reclamation. We know only to well that if we succeed in reforestation, agriculture, industrial projects and othPr enterprises dependent upon water and electricity will be boosted. With the progress along these endeavors, through reforestation, the country faces a better life economically and socially, he concluded. Administrator Jose Viado of the Reforestation Administration will enplane for New Zealand on September 16 to attend the Seventh Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission which will be held from September 2 to October 2 at Rotorua. The Adminisrator is expected to participate during the Commission discussion on progress reports on forestry and forest industries development, trends and prospects in regional wood resources and requirements, and silvicultural and forest management research, as well as on topics allied to forestry and reforestation. Administrator Viado's foreign mission on the conference level will be his third since he became the chief of the Reforestation Administration. In 1961, he was the chief delegate to the seminar in tropical forestry held in West Germany and to the conference on plant exploration and introduction under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome. \\trule in New Zealand, Administrator Viado expects to visit the host country's forest experiment stations especially its forest reclamation projects with a 'iew to learning or adopting techniques on reforestation application to Philippine conditions. Also included in his itenerary is a visit to New Zealand's thw.e leading cities such as Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. WORDS TO REMEMBER There is nothing so easy but that is becomes difficult when you do it with reluctance. Success or failure in business is caused even more by mental attitudes than by mental capacities. Character, like a rifle, cannot shoot higher than Page HO it is aimed ... Much happiness is overlooked becaused it doesn't cost anything. He who has imagination without learning has wing but no feet. -Joseph Joubert. FORESTRY LEAVES 1~~-I SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS DIVISION OF FOREST ECONOMICS AND POLICY June 15, 1964 Oscar A. Gendrano, Editor-in-Chief Forestry Leaves College of Forestry Laguna, Philippines Dear Mr. Gendrane: The Society of American Foresters is sponsoring compilation of a directory of workers in the economics of forestry. This will be a world-\\ide directory. We are quite sure that a number of the persons who \\ill wish to be listed will be among your readership and that we can not readily reach them by other means. Will you publish the enclosed note about the directory? The Society will appreciate it immensely. Please put the note in the first issue of your journal to appear after September ), 1964. Most sincerely, WILLIAM · A. DUERR The Division of Forest Economics and Policy of the Society of American Foresters is in process of compiling a world-wide directory of workers in the economics of forestry The Division aims to include the names of all persons who have a major professional interest in economics as applied to producing, harvesting, processing, marketing, or consumption of forest products or services. Registration forms for the directory were mailed during the first week in September to all forest and forest-industry economists of record. Those who do not receive forms but who wish to be included in the directory are asked to v rite to the chairman of the directory committee : William A. Duerr, State University College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. 13210. The purposes of the forestry economics directory are ( 1) to identify workers in the field so that they can communicate more readily with one another and thus promote the unity and the development of the field; ( 2) to help research workers, prospective employers, program chairmen for professional meetings, government agencies or industrial concerns in search of advisers, and others who may need to know who is working in the field or in special parts of the field; and ( 3) FORESTRY DAY ISSUE to provide a mailing list for specialized professional material. August 4, 1964 The President University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City Sir: We take pleasure in sending you HSBC Check No. B-148797 in the amount of TWO THOUSAND PESOS (1"2,000.00) representing the scholarshipstudy grant fund set up by the Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines in the College of Forestry. We understand that the Dean of the College of Forestry will administer the grant for us, handle the fund, and authorize disbursements to the awardee for the purposes specified in the RULES of the grant. For our bookkeeping purposes, we will appreciate it if we could be furnished periodic statements of the status of the fund. We will, of course, also be very grateful being informed from time to time of the scholastic standing of our awardee. Very truly yours, PAPER INDUSTRIES CORP. OF THE PHIL. A. Soriano y Cia. - General Managers UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON SCHOLARSHIPS August 17, 1964 The Vice-President Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines P. 0. Box 942 Manila Sir : This is to acknowledge with thanks receipt of your check for two thousand pesos (1"2,000.00) covering the Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines Scholarship fund for 1964-65. Enclosed is our official receipt no. 2694 dated August 14, 1964. We are furnishing the Dean of the College of Forestry a copy both of this and your letter so that he may take note of your request for "periodic statements of the status of the fund" and for reports on the "Scholastic standing of [your] awardee". Again, please extend this University's gratitude and appreciation to the Corporation. Very truly yours, (Sgd.) VICENTE BOBIS Member-Secretary Page 111 THE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND FOREST RESEARCH Men were able to improve their lives and their environment because of their patience in scientific investigation. In the field of forestry, much has already been done in the well developed, industrialized countries. The Germans, for example, were able to produce hamburgers, wood alcohol, insecticides, textiles and several thousand other products out of wood. The Americans, too, were able to produce the best quality paper from sawdust which was a waste a year ago. All these have been the product of intensive research and rwbody can deny this fact. But here in the Philippines, we seem to have undermined this fact during all these years. There has never been any attempt to conduct intensive forestry research. As a result, forestry in the Philippines is still very far behind the times. The College of Forestry has the sole responsil>ility of providing technical knowledge in forest utilization and management that is applicable to Philippine forests and conditions. In the execution of its responsibility the College embraces three broad functions: instruction, research and extension. To carry all these functions effectively, it must do research side by side with instruction and extem1ion. Otherwise it would continue to depend on foreign researches most, of which are not applicable to local conditions. Research has been neglected in the past. But rww, it is encouraging to know that after more than 50 years of existence the College of Forestry has decided to formulate a research program. A research coordination committee was created to draft the program. This is the most reasonable approach to the goal. When this will be done, then we can say that Philippine forestry is on the march. The success of the projected research program will, however, depend on the orientation of the students to research and on imparting its necessity to them. At present it is hard to find if ever there is one among the fresh graduates who knows how to design research studies. It is therefore imperative that students be taught how to conduct research before we expect them to go to the actual work and succeed. Teaching research procedures and techniques are undoubtedly basic components of forestry education. There are still several fields of research in our country. Our rapidly growing pulp and paper industries need assurance for their con.tinuous supply of wood materials. Yet we can not assure them that the species they need can be available after a number of )·ears. We are still a century behind in silviculture and tree genetics. The most urgent task of the College today is extension work. There is a need to educate the people of the value of our forest in order that they can appreciate it. It is only when our people have learned to appreciate our forest that we could count on them to act and help in its conservation. Yet, extension teaches people to act and make their own decision on the basis of scientific facts provided them. These scientific facts, to bP sure of their applicability, must not come from foreign lands, it must be our own. It is only through research that we can make forestry a success. As Dr. William Webb, one time t'isiting professor and Sta~ University of New York (SUNY) project leader at the College of Forestry has said, "you can make your lives as teachers and research workers very stimulating and rewarding if )'OU choose to be original, if you choo.~e to work hard, and if you are dedicated to your country, Y'!'\r profession, your University, and to your intellectual development." Of course, u:e do not need to be told all these. We have known these long before. Now it is time for us to act and 1t·e should act quickly to catch up with the rapidl)· admncing industrial technology. -A. D. IS THE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY READY TO MOVE FORWARD For the last 54 years almost all the institutions of higher learning in the country rose to gain honor, fame and glory throughout the land, hut the College of Forestry has remained unrecognized, unhonored and unsung in its isolation in the wilderness of Mt. Makiling. Almost everybody who has known the College and its work wonders why it has not gained the same popularity as the U.P. College of Agriculture which is only less than half a kilometer away, down the hill. The functions of the College of Forestry are just as vital, if not more important, than any other institution of learning in the country. Why has it remained unknown, unhonored and unsung, then? Was it because the pioneer foresters helie\'ed more in doing than in talking blatantly about their work? Or was it due to inferiority complex of the forest workers or the indifference and apathy of the public? Perhaps there are other factors, besides, that have obstructed the steady growth and expansion of this College. During the last five decades, the School of Forestry provided handfuls of men merely to serve the needs of the Philippine forests in the government service and a few logging companies. Today, the rapid strides in industrial technology and the expanding needs for more processing plants as well as the misery and havoc brought about by forest destruction has made the administration and the people more forestry-conscious. We are indeed, fortunate, for the newly created department of forest education and information of the College with the other forestry agencies has helped in making the people realize the necessity of forest conservation and of bringing to their attention the essence of forestry and forest values. Now the College of Forestry is set to move forward. Blueprints for its expansion are embodied in a 171-page five year program. The whole constituency is set to implement it. The total outlay would amount to over sixteen million pesos. The success and failure in the implementation of the program should be the concern not only of the College hut of all parties concerned. - A. D. I>.'1NR Secret:irv lose Y. Feliciano, Director Apo Delegates to Foresters' Crm/erence, Sept. 2-4, 1964. lonio F. RirPrn and Asst. Dir. ]1u111 T. Utleg with the Mabuhay F.C. Alumni! THE ISSUE OF MORE FORESTERS: GLAMOUR VERSUS NECESSITY FLORENCIO MACARANAS' '68 WANTED: 12,000 FORESTERS a magazine article states. Necessity. Said a College of Forestry professor: "While many recognize the vital role of forest industries in the national economy, very few enter the forestry profession." No GLAMOUR. Such is the state of the forestry profession. It is thought of to be dirty work. Some call it a lonely and uncomfortable job. A forester's place is the jungle. Men of the wild country. As any American would call it, "l's a heap of a job." And indeed it is: It is a whale of a job. A job which saps the mental and physical energies of a nice young man. "Tsk, tsk, tsk, why'd that young man take it?" the society matron asks. the lawyers asks, the physician asks, the young secretary asks, his sweetheart asks. "What does he see in it?'' Yes, what does he see in it? The' layman ·sees· the trees; the forester looks at them. The laymen sees the bark, the forester examines it. The larman sees a jungle, the forester a palace. The layman smells of perfume, the forester o sweat. The forester loves the forest as Tarzan loves his jungle. What must a profession be like? Something which does not dirty your hands? But farming is a profession. And the farmer has nice dirty . hands. But how many want to become farmers?. Those who cannot get a white colJar job, that's who. We have agriculturists, yes, . but not farmers. \Ve have soil scientists but not farmers. And, we have farmers, ·but' no foresters. It is a known fact that more foresters are needed in the Philippines. But it is also known that · most Filipinos do not know about the forestry profession. In fact people do not ·know that forestry is a highly technical course. A good number of Filipinos are technical-minded, but they of course would not take a profession that they have not heard about. Most people -think that forestry is nothing but the planting of trees. Ever since grade school, we have heard of doctors, la\vyers, teachers, engineers, nurses, etc., but never of foresters. We have heard of policemen, postmen, scientists, sol diers, pilots. sailors, businessmen, priests, pharmacists chemists, clerks, stenographers, but never of foresters. The little we know about the word "Forester" is connected with "that fellow in the Bureau of Forestry." It is not surprising to see people amazed when they hear that forestry needs to be studied, and a difficult and highly technical course at that Let the government advertise the need for foresters. Let it inform the people of the aspects of forestry. Let it show them the nobility of the profession, and the future foresters will come flocking in. And of course, let it build ·more schools as ai"e needed fot the forestry profession. As it is now, the College of Forestry can hardly accept hrnhundred new students. And the government cries "more foresters." It is like offering a friend to partake of a piece of cake one is already in the process of putting into his mouth. Glamour? How can an unknown profession be glamorous? How will it be glamorous when people think that brains are not not needed? How can people identify it as a profession. when they do not even know it is a course off~red in college? As it is. glamour must ahvays be identified with popularity. Necessity? To the man, or to the country? To both. Still many would not take up forestry, even though they know what it is all about. They would rather be nearer to civilization. Civilization means comfort. And comfort means necessity. How can one see and find comfort in the forest? The forester retorts, "How does Tarzan make himself comfortable in the jungle?" But Tarzan does not exist. Yes, but his spirit does. And the spirit of the poets, and of the explorers, and the cavemen. and the creatures of the forests. The inspiration of the forester. NECESSITY IS THE MOTHER OF INVENTION. Compliments of NASIPIT LUMBER COMPANY, INC ANAKAN LUMBER COMPANY AGUSAN TIMBER CORPORATION ASSOCIATED PULP AND PAPER CO., INC. PHILIPPINE WALLBOARD CORP. PRODUCERS • MANUFACTURERS • EXPORTERS PHIL. MAHOGANY LOGS & LUMBER CREOSOTED LUMBER POLES & PILINGS Main Offices: KILN DRIED & PRESSURE TREATED LUMBER MEMBERS: NASIPIT TILEWOOD LAWANIT Philippine Lumber Producers Association 5th Floor Maritima Bldg. 117 Dasmariiias, Manila Tels. 4·99-31 4-99-51 GT-22-02-15 Cable Address: "NASIPIT MANILA" ''ANAKAN MANILA'' "LAW ANIT MANILA" FORESTRY LEAVES Orian o/ the Student Body and Alumni o/ the College o/ Forestry, U.P. MABIAN:O MAcnACON Francis Mabanag Qnirico Tan Severino Ancheta Elmo Valera Delfin Ganapin SALVADOR M.uBOG ANACLETO DULDULAO Editor-in-Chief DIOSDADO MABFIL Associate Editor& lhaMINIO SAMBA.TON Rogelio Cosico Florencio Macaranas Leonardo Roberto Alfredo Pintor Roberto Romero Lorenzo Guillermo F.duardo Principe Felizardo Najera Jeremias Canonizado Catalino Tosco Section Editorll lll!d Allllistants . CELSO Duz Bwineu Manager Circulation PaoF. JOSE B. BLANDO Advi11er BARTOLOME REYES What makes the difference between profit and loss in. logging? To a large extent, it's the machines you use . . their durability, productivity, economy Joint studies by CATERPILLAR, fares! product companies and governmental agencies have produced better mechanical har· vesting methods and technique•. CATERPILLAR specializes in the lagging mechanization that help• logge" increase profits. CATERPILLAR CaterJilp .., C.I ire lecistnl Jr*-0 of C.ler,ilir ''""' Ce. 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